Kerala History

The present State of Kerala came into being on November 1,1956. It was necessitated by the following developments. The demand for linguistic reorganisation of the state was voiced by the people as far back as 1928. In the late forties of the present century, when , Indian independence was almost nearing realisation, the demand was made with greater fervour. With the formation of the Travancore-Cochin state in 1949, the first positive step in the direction of united Kerala was taken. The Raja of Cochin stepped down, in favour of the ruler of Travancore to become the Rajapramukh.

The Travancore-Cochin political scene presented a grim situation of unsteady ministries. The first popular ministry of T.K. Narayana Pillai was pulled down in 1951, followed by the Ministry of C. Kesavan. With the general elections of 1951-52, AJ. John with 44 members, of a house having a strength of 108 members, formed a ministry, with the support of the Tamil Nadu Congress. 1953 saw its expulsion. In the 1954 mid-term poll the Congress secured only 45 seats in a total of 118 members. In order to avoid the possibility of a coalition ministry by the opposition parties, the Congress offered its support to the Praja Socialist Party with 19 representatives and led by Pattom A. Thanu Pillai, to form a ministry. The Tamil Nadu Congress was a constituent member of the ruling front. The violent incidents which the Tamil Nadu Congress triggered off in the course of its agitation for the merger of the Tamil speaking areas of South Travancore with Madras, during this ministry, led to its fall. In 1955 Pan-ampilli Govinda Menon formed a Ministry, only to fall in 1956 on account of internal feuds in the party. Then President's rule, the first of its kind, was established in Kerala. It was during this spell of President's rule that the Government of India through the States Reorganisations Act of 1956 reorganised Kerala on a lingustic bafis. The Tamil dominant taluks of Tovala, Agas-tiswaram, Kalkulam and Vilavancode and a chunk of Shencottah taluk were cut off from erstwhile Travancore to be merged with Tamil Nadu. Likewise the Malayalam speaking areas of the district of Malabar and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara district were joined to the Travancore-Cochin State to form the Modern State of Kerala on November 1, 1956, with a Governor as the head of the state. The Institution of Rajapramukh as a result ceased to exist in Kerala.

History of Kerala after 1956 In 1957 the firstelections to the Kerala Legislature was held. The Communist Party of India came to power. It was headed by E.M.S. Namboodiripad. Some of the draconian legislations spearheaded by this ministry, brought on a 'liberation struggle' to throw overboard the ministry. Its leader was Mannath Padmanabha Pillai of the Nair Service Society,-who had the support of the Congress, the Praja Socialist Party, the Revolutionary Socialist Party and the Muslim League. The struggle was so grim that the Governor had to take over the administration in 1959, in pursuance of section 356 of the Constitution.
Fresh elections were held in 1960. One strange phenomenon of the new election was that it was fought by an alliance among the Congress, the Praja Socialist Party and Muslim League, against the Communist Party. The* alliance won and Pattom Thanu Pillai became the Chief Minister and the speak-ership was given to the Muslim League. In 1962, the Chief Minister was appointed by the Governor of the Punjab to ease the way for R. Sankar the leader of the Congress to become the Chief Minister. In 1%4, Sankar had to quit, following a non-confidence motion. 15 MLAs belonging to the Congress had defected from the party to bring about the downfall of Sankar. They formed a new party called the Kerala Congress. The midterm elections were, held in 1965 and nobody was returned with adequate majority to form the ministry. Again, the state had a fresh spell of President's Rule.

The extant sources for the study of Kerala history may be broadly classified into two categories--
-Literary sources
-Archaeological

Until recent times, historians relied on the Keralolpathi and the Sanskrit work Keralamahatmyam, two works of doubtful anthenticity composed around the 18th or the 19th century. 'They alround in historical inaccuracies, improbabilities and anachronisms, and serve only to confuse the student of history."

LITERARY SOURCES
These may again be devided into indigenous and foreign. Native sources comprise Sanskrit, Tamil and Malay-alam works.

Sanskrit
The earliest Sanskrit work that contains traces of information on Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka. The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata also refer to Kerala. Scholars like Katyayana of 4th century B.C. and Patanjali of 2nd century B.C. were aware of Kerala. Kalidasa's Raghuvamsam, along with the Puranas like Matsya, Vayu, Skanda, Markandeya give alluring description to Kerala. Thus it is clear that writers beyond the boundaries of Kerala were familiar with the land.

Sanskrit works written in Kerala are of capital importance for the history of Kerala. Tapatismnwrana and Subhad-radhananjaya, two dramas writtenby the royal dramatist Kulasekhara (it is probable that this dramatist was Kulasekhara Alwar) establish the fact that the author was a ruler of Kerala with Mahoday apu-ram as his capital. A Sanskrit manuscript discovered from Tekke Madham, which gives details of the life of Pad-mapada, a disciple of Sankaracharya, spells out a contemporary ruler of Mahodayapuram. Sivanandalahari of Sankaracharya mentions a king by name Rajasekhara. These works prove beyond doubt that Sankaracharya was a contemporary of Kulasekhara Alwar (800 -20 A.D.) and Rajasekhara Varma (820 -44 A.D.). The court astronomer of St-hanu Ravi (844 -85 A.D.) Sankaranaray-ana, through his work Sankaranaraya-niyam has contributed necessary evidence to establish the chronology of Sthanu Ravi. Yamaka Kavyas of Vasudeva Bhat-tatiri and Mushakavamsa written by Atula, the court poet of the Mushaka-King Sri-kantha of Kolathunad, are of great historical value. A good deal of historical glimpses, is provided by these works. The Syananduro Ourana Samuchaya, a composition of 1168 A.D. alludes to the patrilineal system of inheritance followed by the Venad Kings.

The Pradyumnabhyudayam of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara (1299 -1314 A.D.) is useful to assess the intellectual attributes of the author himself. The Sukasandesa of Lakshmidasa is of immense historical and geographical value. Some of the rulers of Perumpadappu Swarupam are mentioned in Vitanidrabhana and Sivav-ilasam. Udaya Marthanda Varma (1383 -1444 A.D.) the Chera ruler of Venad and his times are found mentioned in Lila-tilikam, the great work of grammar. Kok-ilasamdesam written by Uddanda Sastri-kal, whom the Zamorin of Calicut patronised, gives copions references to the pilgrim centres of North Kerala such as Tirunelli, Taliparamba, Tirunavai etc. It also gives references to the flourishing trade of the Zamorins of Calicut. The famous Mamankam festival is mentioned in this work. Much historical information about the 15th and 16th centuries can be gathered from the Mayuraduta of Udaya and Subhagasandesa of Narayana. About 16th century Cochin, we get good deal of information from Kamasandesa of Matrudatta. The Vyavahammala is a work of jurisprudence of the same century.

For reconstructing the medieval history of Cochin some assistance may be sought from the Ramavarma Vilasam and Ratnaketudaya, two dramas of Balakavi. They throw some light on the Portuguese period. Another great Sanskrit scholar who has done yeoman service to history is Melpattur Narayana Bhattatiri (1547-1640 A.D.). Revealing historical sketches are given in the Prasasties he has composed, among which the Deva-narayana Prasasti, Manavikama Prasasti and Vim Kerala Prasasti deserve special mention. Another Sanskrit Kavya of Vasudeva composed at the beginning of the 17th century provides much historical and geographical information. Some useful accounts are provided about Mamankam festival. A historical drama par excellence was Balamarthanadavijaya. It was written by Devaraja and the dramatist has taken utmost pains to describe the military exploits of Marthanda Varma (1729-58 A.D.) of Venad (Travancore).

About the period of Dharma Raja (1758-98 A.D.) we have plenty of Sanskrit works. He himself is credited with the Balaramabharata. Authentic accounts of the period are given in contemporary works like the Ramavarma yasobhushana of Sadasiva Dikshit, the Vanchimahara-jastava of Aswati Tirunal,the AJankar-abhushana of Kalyana Subramanya and the Vasulakshmikalyana of Venkata Subramaniya. The Chadakasandesa of anonymous authorship (18th century) is a work of much value which gives plenty of allusions to such towns as Tirunavai, Trichur, Cranganore, Chennamangalam, Tripunithura, Vaikam, Ambalapuzha, Haripad, Kayamkulam, Trivandrum and Padmanabhapuram. This work also helps us fix the date of the transfer of the capital of Travancore from Pad-manabhapuram to Trivandrum.

Tamil Works
One important source of information for the study of ancient history of Kerala is the collection of Sangam works. These ancient works are full of references to Kerala, its rulers and people. The most important Sangam works are the Patittupattu, the Agananuru the Puran-anuru and the Silappadikaram. The Patit-tippattu is a collection of 100 poems composed in praise of a Chera king. It is a very important source for the reconstruction of the political history of ancient Kerala. The Agananuru is a collection of 400 love poems and the Puran-anuru deals with government, war etc. These anthologies also revolve round Chera history. The Kuruntokai and the Nattinai also throw some light on early Kerala history. The epic Silappadikaram written by Ilango Adikal focus on the history and geography of ancient Kerala.

Some post-Sangam works are also of interest to the historians. The devotional songs of the Saiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alwars cannot be neglected. Works like the Muthollayiram (800 A.D.), the Perumal Thirumozhi of Kulasekhara Alwar (9th century A.D.) and the Peri-yapuranam of Sekkilar (12th century A.D.) contain vtvid historical accounts of Chera kings. The Takkayagapparani of Ottakuthan (12th century A.D.) points to the transfer of Chera capital from Van-chi to Makotai.

Malayalam Works
Plenty of indirect evidences for the study of Kerala history are identified in Malayalam literary works. Though Malayalam originated as a distinct language from the 9th century A.D. the earliest works of historical value may be traced back to the 12th and 13th centuries. The Unniachicharitam and the Unnichirutevicharitam, the earliest extant works give some political and social glimpses of North Kerala in the 13th century. The famous Unninilisandesam of the latter half of the 14th century enlightens on the achievements of Venad kings Iravi Varman(l350-76 ) and Adi-tya Varma Sarvanganatha (1376-83 A.D.), and the political geography of the region from Trivandrum to Kaduthuruthi. The kingdoms of Venad, Odanad, Tekku-mkur and Vadakkumkur are well focused in it. The early history of the Pe-rumpadappu Swarupam is well reflected in the Unniaticharitam of the close of the 14th century. The Kokasandesam helps the historian to solve the riddle relating to the capital of the First Chera Empire and fixes it at Vanchimuthur. For investigating the social and cultural life of the 16th century, the Chandrolsava of the 1st half of the 16th century helps a lot.

Life and Culture of Chera kingdom
Post Sqngam Age
Kerala witnessed the emergence of a dark age in its history between 500 and 800 A.D., the period commonly called as the Kalabhra Interregnum. We have no authentic sources for this period. Eventually, the Kalabhras were overthrown by such powers as the Pallavas, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pandyas. In spite of these political disturbances, there was intense religious activity in Kerala. While Jainism and Buddhism declained, Hinduism made phenomenal progress. Already Christianity and Judaism had struck deep roots in Kerala. It is possible that Islam also made its delout into Kerala in the 7th century A.D. What is really astounding about Kerala is that in spite of the presence of conflicting faiths, there was no religious antagonism among the people and they lived together in amity and friendship from very early days.

Ezhimala
North Malabar was a separate political entity during the Sangam Age. This kingdom comprised the present Can-nanofe and Wynad district and portions of the Tulu country, Coorg and Guda-lur. This north Kerala principality was ruled by the Kings of Ezhimala. It had Ezhimala and Pazhi as its capitals.
The political history of North Kerala in the early centuries of the Christian era, was one of hot contest between the Cheras and the rulers of Ezhimala for supremacy in this area. Perhaps the most illustrious among the early rulers was Nannan of Pazhi. He was a gallant warrior and his aweinspring victories over the Cheras have been mentioned in Ahananuru, Purananuru and Nattinai, all Tamil works. These early victories were followed by this encounter with Narmudi Cheral. In this Nannan's forces were crippled in the great battle of Va-gaiperumthurai.-Nannan died fighting heroically. Thus the entire kingdom fell under the control of the Cheras.
During the days of Nannan, there was commendable economic prosperity in the kingdom. The fabulous collection of Roman coins found in the kingdom bear witness to the flourishing trade connections with Rome. Nannan's administration had the distinction of being very efficient. He was no less a patron of letters and a man of culture.

Mushaka Dynasty
Although with Nannan's death, the glory of the Ezhimala Kingdom eclipsed,, a separate line of rulers known as Mushaka kings established their sway over the Chirakkal — Kasaragod area of Malabar and initiated a period of their rule, with Ezhimala as the capital. They are supposed to be the descendants of Nannan. The major source for the history of the Mushaka Kingdom is the great Sanskrit work Mushakavamsa written by Atula. The most powerful king of the line was Valabha II. Srikanta, his successor, was the royal patron of Atula.
The old Mushaka country, which was called Kolathunad in the fourteenth century, was ruled by the decendants of the Mushakas, called the Kolathiris. By far the most important ruler of this family was Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446-75 A.D.). He patronised Cherusseri, the author of the famous Krishnagatha. This was a time of great prosperity for the Kingdom.

During the Portuguese period, which began with Vasco da Gama's arrival in 1498, the Kolathiris started of with a period of toleration in their relations with the foreigners ended up with an epoch of confrontation with them in order to defend their rights. The Dutch also had to face the opposition of the Kolathiris. The later history of Kolathunad was overshadowed with internal dissensions among the members of this ruling family. This naturally emboldened the English in subsequent years to establish their foothold in this region.

History of the State from Pre-historic to the present

The pre-history of Kerala is obscure. Yet, some idea could be gathered about it from the remains that have been unearthed. So far the state hardly yielded palaeoliths and it is likely that it had no such phase of history. However, Kerala became the abode of man in the Neolithic Age. The history of the state is thus traceable only from that age.

Megalithic culture
Kerala is noted for abundance of megalithic monuments lying scattered all over the state. They are of a kind common in south India and are erected as "funerary edifices either sepulchral or commemorative. The people of Neolithic Age believed in life after death and hence after cremating the body or exposing it to the elements, they collected specific bones, like the skull of long bones and interned them in urns of jars, in pits or cists or in rock-cut caves along with weapons, tools, ornaments, pots of various sizes and sometimes even coins. This is fractional burial. Extended or stretched burial was also in vogue. The megaliths found in Kerala are dolmens, port-hole cists, menhirs, kudakkalu (umbrella stone), Toppikallu (cap stone) and rock-cut caves.
The anatiqaity of the megalithic culture of Kerala has not been conclusively established. H.D. Sankalia has stated that the megaliths represent "a fairly well-established and prosperous social organisation." According to Gordon they are timed between 700 and 400 B.C. So Mortimer Wheeler suggests a period between 300 B.C. and the middle of the 1st century B.C. On the strength of evidence found in some Tamil works it is possible to conclude that the culture continued to flourish several centuries after the commencement of the Christian era.

Earliest inhabitants
According to cultural anthropologists the earliest strain in the population of Kerala was represented by the Negrito element which laid the foundations of the megalithic culture. Hill tribes such as the Kadar, the Malapandaram, the Kanikkar, the Mutuvans, the Ullatan, the Uraly etc., may be the surviving representatives of the Negrito race. Common physical features they shared amongst themselves are curly hair, black skin, round head and broad nose. It is probable that the Negritos were replaced by the proto Australoids. Their chief distinguishing characteristics were long head, protruding face, flat nose and dark skin. Modern Irulans, Kurichiyas, Karim-plans, Mala Arayans, Malavedans etc. represent this group. The Mediterraneans, who figure as the predominant strain in the Dravidian population. ouperseded the Proto-Australoids. Their distinct features were slender physique, short height, long head, oval face and pointed chin. It is believed that they came to India in different groups following the mounting pressure from the Greeks. One such section chose South India as their abode and laid the foundations of the Dravidian culture. The Nayars, the Ezha-vas, the Vellalas, the Kammalas, the Mukkuvas, the Velans, the Vaniyans, the Parayas, the Pulayas, and the Kura-vas claim their identity with the Drav-idians. The Aryans, probably the last stock which completed the racial composition of Kerala, started coming to the state two or three centuries before the Christian era. They were tall, fair skinned, with long head and long nose. Through a process of assimilation and compromise, the two racial groups, the Dravidi-ans, and the Aryans, fostered a great measure of racial and cultural synthesis. This was the backdrop of the composite culture of Kerala.

Kerala in the Sangam and post Sangam Age
The formative epoch of Kerala history begins with the Sangam Age. It covers the first three or four centuries of the Christian era. The evidences drawn from the Sangam works, Tamil epigra-phical records, and classical accounts clinch this issue in favour of the above conclusion. During this period Kerala was part of Tamilakam.
The most authentic sources for this period are the extant Sangam works. They are classified into eight well-arranged anthologies like Nattiani, Kurumtokai, Purananureu, Ahananur, Patittupattu, Anjurunum, Paripadal and Kalittoagai.
In the Sangam Age Kerala was divided into three political segments ruled by the Ays in the South, the Cheras in the middle and the rulers of Ezhimala in the North.

The Ays
The Ays were the earliest ruling family of South Kerala with their kingdom stretching from Tiruvalla in the North to Nagercoil in the South. The origin of the Ays is shrowded in obscurity. The Sangam works however, affirm that like the Cholas, Chera and Pandyas, the Ays were also natives of the soil. They ruled over South Kerala from the beginning of the Sangam age to the 10th century A.D. with their capital at Ayakudi in the Podiyil mountain. The most illustrious rulers were by Antiran, Titiyan and Atiyan.

Ay Antiran
Purananuru gives plenty of references to Ay Antiran, the greatest Ay ruler during the Sangam Age. He is referred to as the lord of the Podiyil mountain, the southern tip of the Western Ghats. He distinguished himself both as a warrior and as a man of peace. His briliiant achievement was his victory over the kings of the Kongu country. The Tin-neveli-Madurai region of Tamil Nadu recognised his suzerainty. Himself a patron of arts and letters, he extended his bounties to poets and other literary luminaries. Ay Antiran was a Saivite.

Titiyan
The next important Ay ruler of the Sangam Age was Titiyan. Great poets like Kapilar and Paranar were his contemporaries. One great achievement of the monarch was that he settled some boundary disputes with the Pandyan Kingdom, when it was ruled by King Bhutapandya.

Atiyan
Atiyan was another important ruler of the Ay kingdom during the Sangam Age. During his reign, the Ay kingdom was invaded by the Pandyas under Pasumpun Pandyan (Azhakia Pandyan) a warrior-king. Atiyan could not repulse the attack. He surrendered and lost those regions in Central and Southern Tra-vancore. Despite their best efforts, the Ays could not regain the prominence which they once enjoyed.

Later Ay Kings
The immediate post Sangam Age was a dark period in the history of the Ays. During the 7th and 8th centuries the Ay-Pandyan conflict continued. But it was far from being productive of any advantage" to the Ays, despite a new friendship which they forged with the Cheras. However, in the 9th century, the Ay Kingdom came to be ruled by two illustrious rulers Karunandadakkan (857-85 A.D.) and his son Vikramaditya Vara-guna (885-925 A.D.).
Karunandadakkan addressed himself to the arts of peace. He took much interest in the promotion of education and learning. His name is associated with the construction of the Parthivasekhar-apuram Vishnu temple. A Salai (Vedic college) was also established at this place. The famous Kandalur Salai is belived to have been established by him.
Vikramaditya Varaguna, the immediate successor distinguished himself as a tolerant ruler. The Paliyam Copper Plate Inscription testifies to this. This records the grant of extensive land to the Buddhist temple of Tirumulapadam, situated in the Chera empire. His region also was marked by a critical phase in the political supermacy between the Pandyas and the Cholas. Varaguna seems to have assisted the Pandyas in their fight against the Cholas. With the death of this ruler, the glory of the Ays departed.

THE SECOND CHERA EMPIRE: THE KULASEKHARAS OF MAHODAYAPURAM (800-1102 A.D.)

The Sangam Age, with all its colour and glory, ended. This was followed by period of darkness in the history of Kerala. It lingered on until the end of the eighth century A.D. However, it receded with the beginning of the nineth century A.D., when an illustrious line of Kings known as Kulasekharas inaugurated their rule over Kerala with their capital at Ma-hodayapuram. It stretched from 800 to 1102 A.D.

The founder of this new Second Chera Empire was Kulasekhara Alwar (800-20 A.D). He was an ardentlover of learning and a patron of arts. Many illustrious works like Perumal Tirumozhi in Tamil, dramas like Mukundamala, Tapa-tisamvarna, Subhadradhanjaya and Vichch-innabhiseka in Sanskrit, and a prose work Aschrya Manjari in the same language have been attributed to him.
The second in the line was Rajasekhara Varman (820-44 A.D.), a devout Saivite and usually identified with Cheraman Perumal Nayanar. A significanteventof his reign was the commencement of the Malayalam Kollam Era in 825 A.D. for which no authentic reason has been adduced by historians. He is also associated with the Vazhappalli inscription, the first epigraphical record of Chera kings to be discovered from Kerala.
Sthanu Ravi Varman (844-55 A.D.) was yet another outstanding ruler of the Chera dynasty. Ayyan Atikal Tiruvatikal, who issued the famous Terisapalli Copper Plate of 849 A.D., was the governor of Venad under Sthanu Ravi Varman. The amicable relations which the Chera king maintained with the contemporary Chola emperor, Aditya Chola is borne out by the Tillaisthanam inscription. The observations of the Arab Merchant Sulaiman (851 A.D.) affirms the flourshing trade between Kerala and China during his region. The emperor was an authority on astronomy and he extended his patronage to Sankaranarayana, who wrote Sankaranarayaniyam a commentary on Bhaskara's astronomical work Laghubhaskariya. An observatory also functioned effectively at  Mahodayapuram.

The reign of Rama Varma Kulasekhara (885-917 A.D.) was noted only for the strengthening of the friendly ties with the Cholas through a marriage alliance. The foreign traveller Masudi visited Kerala and left behind an account of the life of the people during Ram Varma's reign.
His successor Goda Ravi Varma (917-44 A.D.) was known as the author of innumerable inscriptions. These have greatly assisted the historians in solving the riddles relating to the chronology and limits of the Chera empire. His empire comprised practically the whole of Kerala. The relations with the Cholas deteriorated during his period because of two reasons. The annexation of the Ay kingdom by the Cheras and the granting of political asylum to the Pandyan ruler, Maravarman Rajasimha. Being a strategist, the emperor took effective steps to garrson the frontiers in order to keep enemies at bay.

Indu Kotha Varma (944-62 A.D.) succeeded Goda Ravi Varma. During his time the Chola-Chera relations remained nearly tense. It was however eased with the death of Parantaka Chola the aggressor.
Bhaskara Ravi Varman I (962-1019 A.D.), the next ruler has immortalised himself in Kerala history with his Jewish Copper Plate grant of 1000 A.D. This inscription conferred on a "Jewish Chief Joseph Rabban, the rights of the An-chuvannam and 72 other properietary rights." No doubt the grant was a token of the high sense of religions toleration granted in the Chera empire.

However, this may also be deemed as a diplomatic move to win the Jew over to the Chera side, in view of the im-plending Chola aggression under Raja Raja. By the end of his reign the whole of South Travancore to the south of Kuzhithura came under the Chola domination. Raja is also believed to have overtaken Vizhinjam and Kandalur Salai over which there were repeated struggles between the Cheras and the Cholas. The final route of the Cheras took place before the Cholas under Rajendra, when he invaded the capital Mahodayapuram, in which Bhaskara Ravi Varman lost his life.

On his death Bhaskara Ravi Varman II ascended the throne, but ruled only for a short while (1019-21 A.D.). He was followed by Vira Kerala (1021-28 A.D.). The Chola aggressions continued and with the death of Vira Kerala, the Chera power eclipsed. This led to the final disintegration of the Chera power. However with fluctuating fortunes, the Cheras continued under Raja Simha (1028-43 A.D.). His reign is known for his Mannarkoil inscription, which acknowledged the supremacy of the Cholas. By the time of Bhaskara Ravi Varma (1043-1082 A.D.) Kerala was totally liberated from the Chola yoke. Ravi Rama Varma (1082-90 A.D.) followed Bhaskara Ravi Varma.

The last of the Kulasekharas was Rama Varma Kulasekhara (1090-1102 A.D.). ascended the throne when the empire was in the throes of a great crises. Kulothunga Chola was on war path against the Cheras. In order to ward off the Chola menace he organised the famous suicide squads (Chaver Pada) to put up a stiff war of liberation against the Cholas. During the long war, the Chera capital of Mahodayapuram was burnt down. Following this, he shifted the capital to Quilon. Then at the head of a large army, he proceded against the Cholas. In this encounter, the latter were completely defeated and Kulothunga had to retreat up to Kottar. This saved Kerala. Thus Rama Varma Kulasekhara saved the hearth and home of. the people of Kerala. The end of the Kulasekhara empire was soon to follow. On its ruins, thereafter emerged the Kingdom of Venad as an independent kingdom.

GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY IN THE KULASEKHARA AGE

The Kulasekhara period of Kerala history falls into two phases. The nineth and tenth centuries constituted the "Golden Age" in Kerala history. The eleventh which followed was a period of stagnation and decline.
Political Division
The Kulasekhara empire at the apex of its power comprised the whole of modern Kerala, Guddalore and some parts of Nilgiri district and Salem - Coim-batore region. For purposes of administration it was divided into provinces called Nadus. They were Venad, Odanad, Nanthuzhinad, Munjunad, Vempolinad, Kizhumalainad, Kalkarainad, Nedum-purayurnad, Valluvanad, Eralnad, Pola-nad, Kurumbranad, Kolathunad and Puraikizhanad.

Administration
The emperor who styled himself as Terumal' was the head of the administration. Patrilineal system of inheritance was in vogue. He was the leader of the people in peace and war. As the fountain head of the judiciary he dispensed with even-handed justice.1 TKe administration of the province was invested with feudatory chiefs, who were controlled by Koyiladhikarikal and the local assemblies Munnuttuvar, Amnuttuvar etc.
Each province or nadu in turn was divided into desams governed by De-savazhis, who were controlled by Kut-tams, popular bodies. The lowest unit was the kara which was governed by panchayat.
The inscriptions of the time, throw much light on the details of administration of the empire. Perhaps the most important were Adhikari (executive officer), Patanayakan (C-in-C), Kizhpatanayakan (2nd in command), Bhandaramkappan (Treasury Office) etc. Law and order was maintained most efficiently. The penal code was comprehensive. Com-, mon forms of punishment were fines and imprisonment. A variety of taxes, such as Patavaram (land tax), Talaikanam (professional tax), Polippon (sales tax), Kundanazhi (tax on todday), Mulaivila (tax on women labours) etc. were levied from the people. The Kulasekharas had a well equipped army and navy. The efficiency of the fighting force is well borne out by the misaculous feats of valour displayed by the soldiers during the time of the Chola-Chera war.
The capital city Mahodayapuram had all the splendours of the head quarters. The city enjoyed all civic emenities of life and was well protected by fortresses. Beautiful palaces and extensive pathways added to the grandeur and conveniences of the capital. It was also a famous centre of learning and culture.

Trade
The reign of the Kulasekharas witnessed flourishing trade with China. Important ports of the time were Kanda-lur, Quilon, Vizhinjam and Cranganore. Arab travellers, Sulaiman and Masudi have vouched for the brisk trade carried on in the land. During the Kulasekhara period merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economic and social life of the times. The Terisapalli Copper Plate also testifies to this.

Language and Literature
The Kulasekhara Age witnessed the emergence of Malayalam as an independent language. Gradually a new language, script and literature developed. No work of excellence was produced during the age, as Malayalam was still in its infancy. But in Tamil and Sanskrit, several classical works appeared during the Kulasekhara age. Apart from 'those works already mentioned in relation to Kulasekhara Alwar, TripuradaJwna, Yudhishthiravijaya Sauri-Kathodaya and Nalodaya of  Vasudeva Bhattatiri are of great literary value. The noted Advaita philosopher Sankaracharya.the author of the commentaries on Brahmasutras, the Bhagavat Gita and the main Upan-ishads and composer of philosophical poems like Vivekachu'damini, Upade-sasahsri, Atmabodha and Mohamudgara and SaundaryalaJwri add to the crowning glory of the Kulasekhara literature. Another literary giant was Tolan whose celebrated works on histrionics like Attaprakarams and Kramadipika were of inestimable value to the literary contributions of the Kulasekhara Age.

Establishment of Hindu Religion on Firm Foundation
During the Kulasekhara age Jainism and Buddhism declined and Hinduism came to be laid on solid foundations. This was the natural consequence of the Aryanisation of Kerala, which reached its highest water mark in the eighth century A.D.

Propagation and popularisation of Hindu religion and its philosophy was triggered off by Sankaracharya. His teachings offered a splended intellectual basis, for Hinduism. But his philosophical dicourses were all in Sanskrit and beyond the understanding of the common people. Therefore, some saints of Hinduism initiated a new cult of Bhakti, "an intense emotional surrender to a personal God in the form of Vishnu or Siva." Under the impact of the Bhakti Movement a new wave of religious enthusiasm surged throughout Kerala. The immediate effect of the movement was the establishment of temples by the Alwars, the Vaishanavite wing of the Bhakti Movement and Nayanars, the Saivite wing of the movement. Thus Hinduism got firmly implanted in the lives of the people.

The period also saw the rise and con-sumenation of the indigenous Chera architecture and sculpture. The temples newly established were provided with prolific stone and wooden sculptures which reflect the Chalukya, the Pallava, the Pandya and the Chola styles. It is also of interest to note that the beginnings of structural temples in Kerala began in the Kulasekhara Age.

Epigraphical evidences prove that elaborate arrangements were made for the management of temples. The general control of the administration of temples was invested in the Koyiladhikari-kal. A committee called Sablia was charged with the responsibility of the administration of each temple, though for day-to-day work, the committee appointed a secretary called Potuval.

The Kulasekhara Age also witnessed a development of various cultural activities. New festivals were celebrated among which Onam was the most significant. Among new temple arts which emerged in the period mention may be made of Kuthu and Kudiyattam. The institution of the Devadasis seems to have taken its rise in the Kulasekhara Age.

The Kulasekharas were noted tor their religious toleration. The existence of Jainism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam side by side proves the religious catholicity of the Kulasekharas.

Education and Learning
The Kulasekhara Age was remarkable in the field of education and learning. Centres of education arose ia the premises of temples. Such centres were called Salais. While Kandalur Salai and Parthivasekharapuram Salias established by the Ay kings, to which reference was made already continued, other salais such as the Tiruvalla Sallai and Muzhikulam Salai were set up by the Kulasekharan. These institutions imparted advanced learning in Philosophy, Theology, and Grammar.

In addition to the above, organised efforts were also made in temple premises to recite and explain puranic stories. For this purpose a Brahmin scholar was appointed and detailed for each temple. "The Chakkiar Kuthu which was a sort of mono-drama in which the chakkiar himself acted the part of all the characters impressing his audience with suitable gestures, was also an important instru-mentof popular instruction and enlightenment." Recital of devotional songs by group of devotees, was another programme aimed at adult education and enlightenment. Public libraries with large collection of books on various subjects were also maintained in temple precincts. Proficiency tests frequently held in scriptures gave great encouragement to the study of religious literature.

Economic and Social Changes in the Eleventh Century
The Kulasekhara age was one of peace and prosperity until 999 A.D. when the Cholas started their aggressions against Kerala. This protracted war led to the total abandonment of the pursuit of the arts of peace. Far-reaching economic and social changes took place on account of the demands made by the war. The entire -Ac of the state came to be geared to the needs and challenges evoked by the tense situation of the fight.
Under the new dispensation, the resources of the state were mobilised for the needs of war. Even the Brahmins, leaving their priestly duties took to arms. The Salais and temples were progressively neglected. Centres of education were converted to Kalaries for imparting military training. Even suicide squads were set up to meet the challenge.
The Chola-Chera war paved the way for enormous increase in the power of Namboothiri Brahmins in the socio-economic life of the state. In the nineth and tenth centuries wealthy individuals had given extensive lands to temples as endowments. These were managed by the Namboothiri Brahmins as trustees. During the period of the war these were mismanaged and exploited by them. This led to the emergence of Janmi system in Kerala.
Another significant development was the adoption of Marumakkathayam system of inheritance in the place of the earlier patrilineal system. This could have been necessitated by the abnormal conditions created by the war of the eleventh century. The political and economic ascendancy of the Brahmins, the introduction of compulsory military training and the creation of the suicide squads necessitated the adoption of Marumakkathayam system.
On account of the war, all foreign trade of Kerala stood abandoned. The earlier economic prosperity that the state had, ceased forthcoming. Society became more complex under strict caste divisions. This led to the obliteration of all bonds which kept society united and strong. The war also weakened the central authority and thus paved the way for the disintegration of the state. These factors adversely affected the course of Kerala history and led to the emergence of petty principalities all over Kerala, on the ruins of the Kulasekhara empire.

RISE AND GROWTH OF THE BRITISH POWER

It was trade that attracted the English to come to Kerala as the Portuguese and the Dutch. Ralpha/Fitch was the first to land on the Kerala coast, in Cochin.
The earliest English Mission to enter into a treaty with the Zamorin was in 1615 under Captain Keeling. In return for the assurance given by the English to assist the Zamorin in his efforts to expel the Portuguese from Cranganore and Cochin, the English were given all facilities of trade in Calicut. The English got freedom to make use of all Portuguese ports in Kerala under treaty of 1634-35 between the two parties. Before long, they got permission from Venad to build a factory at Vizhinjam. British plan of further build-up was interrupted with the capture of the Portuguese possessions by the Dutch. But in 1664, the Zamorin permitted the English to construct a factory at Calicut.

English at Anjengo
The English then turned to other parts of Kerala. By virtue of the hospitality of the Rani of Attingal, they got a tract of sandy land at Anjengo in 1684 for the construction of a factory. Subsequently, permission was also given them to put up a fort there. By 1695 it was completed. This turned out to be a vital possession for the English in the west coast, from where they could command the strategic expansion to South and Central Kerala.
So much bonanza to the English was never appreciated by the local people who made a reckless but unsuccessful attack on the factory in 1697. Because of the overbearing attitude of the factors, the local people again made an attempt to capture Anjengo in 1721. It was fruitless venture and the Rani had to pay heavily for the loss sustained by the English in the revolt.

Treaty Between the English and Travancore, 1723
In 1723 the English entered into a treaty with the King of Travancore. By this treaty the Raja built a fort at Col-achal and it was garrisoned by the English. Treaty of friendship between the two powers, enabled Travancore to effectively suppress the power of the Pil-lamars, a great challenge to Travancore in those times.

English Factory at Tellicherry
However the English were equally interested in establishing themselves in the north. They procured a tract of land from Kolathunad to build a fort at Tellicherry. The factory was probably established in 1694-95. The English had to face local opposition at Tellicherry also. Gradually it died down. Tellicherry soon developed into an importantstronghold of the English.

Beginning of Anglo-French Conflict
The English in North Kerala had soon to meet a fresh challenge. The Franch who were their rivals captured Mahe about 6 kms south of Tellicherry from Kadathanad. The English and the French took sides in local disputes to strengthen their respective portion. Since the home governments did not approve of such a policy, the English and the French agreed to live in peace (1728).

Acquisition of Dharmapattanam
Despite the peace at Mahe, the English had still to face the opposition of the Dutch, who were strong in Cannanore. They used Ali Raja as a tool to start hostilities against the English. But with the assistance of the Kottayam Raja, the English expelled him from Dharmapattanam island. Subsequently for the assistance rendered by the English to Ali Raja and the Kottayam chief, Dharmapattanam was permanently given to the English.

Anglo-French Conflict (1739-49)
The French in Mahe precipitated certain problems for the English by capturing a few possessions of the Kadathanad ruler. But direct confrontation between the two European powers did not take place. Following the European war between the English and the French in 1744, there took place a few skirmishes in North Kerala. But with the treaty of Aix-la-chappelle in 1749, hostilities between the English and the French also came to an end.
Complications at Tellicherry The position of the English at Tellicherry was challenged in 1750 by the combined forces of Kolathunad, Kot-tayam and Kadathanad. In 1751, the Kot-tayam Raja defected from the alliance. Although, the French joined the enemy camp in 1756, following the European war, Tellicherry surrendered to the English in 1761. This was followed by the fall of Mahe. Yet with the Treaty of Paris 1763 the English returned Mahe to the French.

The Mysorean Invasion and Growth of British Power
The Mysorean invasion of Kerala brought fresh problems to the English. Though Haider had ensured to the English his neutrality in the event of his intervention in Kerala, his alliance with the French invited the hostility of the English. This naturally encouraged the English and they offered their support to the Zamorin in his wars against Mysore. Tipu's invasion of Travancore an ally of the English in 1789 caused the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Mysore war. With the fall of Seringapatanam in 1792, as indicated earlier the Mysorean hegemony over Kerala came to an end.
Political Settlement of Malabar The whole of Tipu's possessions in Malabar now lay before the English. The later however were not prepared to take directly the responsibilities of administration. Instead, the Governor of Bombay detailed a team of Joint Commissioners, viz., Mr. Farmer, Major Dow, Jonathan Duncan and Charles Boddam to effect separate political-settlement with the local rulers. The ensu-' ing settlements, set out the claims and defined the status of these rulers in their relation with the English. These arrangements remained in force up to 1800, when the district of Malabar was transferred to the Madras Presidency. It was then put in charge of Major Macleod, the Principal Collector (1801).

Treaties with Cochin and Travancore
In the final scheme of political settlement, the company envisaged fresh treaties with Cochin and Travancore, with the aim of establishing control over these states.
By the treaty of 1791 the Cochin Raja agreed to remain content with the status of a vassal. In return for an annual tribute, the company promised to protect and help him in his problems. Likewise by another treaty concluded in 1795, which was revised in 1805, Travancore was made a subsidiary ally of the English for which Rajas was to pay the company 8 lakhs of rupees. A political agent designated Resident was also posted in Travancore to guide the state in administration. Both these treaties amounted to a virtual surrender of the political freedom of Cochin and Travancore.
Internal Resistance to British

Supremacy
The supremacy established by the British in Kerala was a fait accompli in the context of the political turmoil in Kerala. Still without a real test of strength, Kerala was not prepared to submit. A few organised attempts were made in the closing years of the eighteenth and early decades of the nineteenth century to challenge British authority. In these struggles Malabar, Cochin and Travancore played their respective roles.
Rebellion of Patinjare Kovilakatn Rajas
The earliest revolt broke out in Calicut. After the explusion of Tipu, the Zamorin approached the Commissioners and demanded that his territories might be restored. But it was not conceded and then the Zamorin entered into an agreement with the company. It was however challenged by the Patinjare Kovilakam Branch of the Zamorin's family. The members of this family rose in revolt and mobilised the support of several chieftains who were unseated by the Joint Commissioners. Captain Burchall drove them away. In the end they returned to Malabar abandoning their old posture and agreeing to live in peace.

PAZHASSI REVOLT I -1793-97
A much more serious challenge to British supremacy was that of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja of the Kottayam royal family. He was irritated by the discontinuance of Tipu's system of direct collection of revenue from ryots, by the British who introduced instead the farming out of collection to local Rajas for lump sum. People disapproved of the new system and refused to pay. Further, he was infuriated by the callous attitude of the British in leasing Kottayam to the Raja of Kurumbranad, his own uncle.

This was morally wrong because he had assisted the British in their fights against Tipu, and hence the rightful claimant to Kottayam. Before long the revolt took a violent turn. In 1795, a contingent of British troops surrounded his palace to capture him. This was futile as the Raja had already escaped from his palace.
The Pazhassi Raja took refuge in the mountain of Wynad and from there began to give guerilla warfare to the British. The Kuttiadi Ghat traffic was closed in 1796. Thereupon the commisioners issued a circular forbidding the people from any contacts with the Pazhassi Raja. Thereupon the Pazhassi Raja sought the help of Tipu against the English. Some soldiers of Kurumbanad offered their services to the Pazhassi Raja. A series of fights followed, which compelled the British soldiers to withdraw from Wynad.
In March 1797 the British troops under Col. Dow marched against the Pazhassi Raja. The latter also harnessed the support of thousands of Nairs and Kuric-hiyas. When pressure mounted, Col. Dow withdrew from Wynad. A serious development of the operation was that the Raja ambushed and butchered a soldiers under Major Cameron. This compelled the British to come to terms with the Pazhassi Raja.

PAZHASSI REVOLT II 1800-05
The peace that was established was short lived. In 1800 the Pazhassi Raja again rose in revolt. The immediate provocation was the concerted move taken by the British to take Wynad. This time Pazhassi Raja raised a mighty army of Nairs, Kurichiyas, Mappillas and others. This army was given special training in guerilla warfare. Some able commanders such as Kannavath Sankaran Nambiar, Kaiteri Ambu Nair, Edachanna Kungan Nair and others.
The British were not slow to understand the threat and therefore elaborate preparations were made to meet the challenge. Arthur Wellesly was appointed to command the operations. To meet the danger, a net work of new road was constructed and military pickets were set up at strategic points from where they could strike.
The resistance was started in-1800. The British strategy was to attack the Raja from all directions. Col. Stevenson entered Wynad from Mysore. Most of the important places in Wynad fell and the Raja became a wanderer in the Jungles of Wynad. Several men of the Pazhassi army were captured and executed. In 1801 Kannavath Sankaran Nair was captured and killed. This was a terrible blow to the Pazhassi Raja. But soon, in 1802, the rebels mustered strength and captured the Panamaram fort and massacred all soldiers stationed there. This was met courageously by the British by closing in on Wynad. The remaining Pazhassi soldiers withdrew to jungles.
When things came to such a pass, Major Maclod ordered a hike in land taxes. This enraged the civilian population and a mass upheaval followed. The Pazhassi army took advantage of this and made common cause. In 1804 Thomas Harvey Baber was appointed SubCollector of Tellicherry and he was charged with the special resposibility of crushing the Pazhassi revolt. The British made every efforts to capture the Raja and his lieutenants. Very attractive rewards were also promised for assisting the British to seize him. The Raja sensing great danger, withdrew to the jungles. But Baber was chased him. In 1805 the Raja was shot dead. Most of his men either died fighting or were captured by the British.
The Pazhassi revolt failed. But the Raja will ever be remembered as the hero of people's war against British imperialism. So the Pazhassi Raja has won an abiding place in the hearts of the people of Kerala.

REVOLT OF VELU THAMPI AND PALIATH ACHAN
Another memorable example of internal resistance to British rule in Kerala was that of Velu Thampi and Paliath Achan the Chief Ministers of Travan-core and Cochin respectively. This was also of the nature of popular uprising against the British.
Velu Thampi himself rose to prominence as a Dewan, following a successful popular revolt which he had lead against corruption and misrule of the king'-s advisers. It was again through his instrumentality that Travancore negotiated a treaty with the East India Company in 1805. Until then Velu Thampi was friendly to the English. But the overbearing attitude of the British Resident, Col. Macaulay and his meddling with the administration provoked Velu Thampi. To put Travancore to a tight corner of financial strain, the Resident now demanded prompt payment of the arrears, of tribute.
Velu Thampi found a close friend in Paliath Achan, the Dewan of Cochin. Cochin had been harbouring ill-will towards the Englsih, for all territorial settlements in which Cochin had interests, were made to the maximum disadvantage to the state. Moreover just in Travancore, in Cochin also Col. Macaulay interfered in the day-to-day administration to such an extent that, people with any amount of self respect could ever tolerate. Therefore Paliath Achan also made common cause with Velu Thampi.
The two ministers chalked out a common plan of action. They enlisted an army and equipped it with very good training. It is supposed that they sought even the help of the the French at Mauritius, for overthrowing the British from Kerala. What triggered off the revolt was a fur tile attempt made in 1808 by a contingent of 600 men to capture Macaulay at his residence in Cochin. On getting some faint intelligence about it, Macauly escaped. The rebels in their dismay forcibly opened the jail at Cochin and liberated all the prisoners. They then attacked Cochin but sustained only heavy loss in the operation.
In the Travancore sector Velu Thampi shifted his headquarters from Alleppey to Kundara. It was from here that he issued the famous proclamation of 1809, calling upon the people to join in the crusade he had started against the British. It was well responded but the deadly battle, that followed shattered the hopes of Velu Thampi. Nevertheless he fought gallantly. The British with their fighting strength and strategy turned the tables against Thampi. A British contingent under Col. St. Leger opened a new front. He entered Travancore through the Aramboli pass, captured the forts at Udayagiri and Padmanabhapuram, and rushed to Trivandrum. Meanwhile, Cochin was forced to leave the alliance with Velu Thampi following its defeat in 1809. The Maharaja of Travancore, soon defected to the enemy camp, as he became convined of the futility of Velu Thampi's strategy. So unpatriotic did the Maharaja become that he ordered even the arrest of Velu Tampi. Disheartened, Tampi went to the north and took refuge in a house where the Potti of the Bhagavathi temple at Mannadi lived. Here he committed suicide before falling into the hands of the Raja's men. Thus Velu Tampi died a martyr. He has ever since been a source of inspiration to millions in their freedom struggle.
Kurichiya Revolt 1812 Malabar once again witnessed a rebellion. This time it was from the Kuric-hiyas and Kurambars. The cause for the revolt was the substitution of revenue collection in cash from kind. Following certain atrocities committed in Sultan's Battery and Manantoddy, British troops proceeded against them and mercilessly put down the revolt.

Enlightened administration in Travancore
Dharma Raja was succeeded by Balar-ama Varma (1798-1810). He followed in the foot steps of his predecessors. Although, he began on the wrong foot, soon matters came to a promising beginning with the appointment of Velu Tampi as Dalawa in 1800 with the tacit consent of Col. Macaulay, the Resident.
Velu Tampi was an able administrator. His name is associated with several progressive reforms. He made no quarter to corrupt officials whose heads rolled one after another. The revenue work was systematised and officers were expected to give daily returns of income and expenditure. Education was encouraged. Towns like Trivandrum, Quilon and Alleppey were provided with all amenities of life. At Quilon he established the HuzurCutcherry. For the progress of Agriculture also he initiated a series of steps. Thus Travancore forged ahead during the time of Velu Tampi.
After Velu Tampi's martyrdom, Ummini Tampi became Dalawa. He also initiated a few reforms. The finances of the state were set right. In the field of judiciary, he is remembered for the district courts he estalished in every district. He also drew up a scheme for the development of the port of Vizhinjam. In spite of these and several other reforms, he never commanded the respect of the people.

Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bat (1810-15)
The period of Gouri Lakshmi Bai was marked by enlightened administration under Col. Munro the Resident Diwan. Being conversant with the British system of administration he found no difficulty in adopting it in Travancore. "The secretariat system was introduced by him and all correspondence at the state level was to be carried on with his knowledge and under his signature."3 All corruption was bloted out and men of integrity were entrusted with the responsibilities of administration. Government expenditure was streamlined and an efficient system of audit and accounts was introduced. Revenue collection was made easy with the issue of Pattayams to all holders. The Karyakars took on the modern name, Tahasildar. They were deprived of military and judicial responsibilities they shouldered earlier. One great measure of social reforms was the abolition of slavery in 1812.
Judiciary and Police Departments also were modernised. In the field of the judiciary, he established five Zilla or district courts at Padmanabhapuram, Trivandrum, Mavelikkara, Vaikom and Alwaye. An appeal court was also set up at Trivandrum. He also promulgated a set of rules for the guideance of courts called Sattavariolas. It was he who made the Qevaswom administration in the state department. Thus certain vital foundations of modern administration of Travancore were laid by Munro.

Gouri Parvati Bai (1815-29)
The reign of Gouri Parvati Bai witnessed tremendous progress in the field of administration and social reforms.

The guiding hand of Munro was still there upto 1818 when he retired from the office of the Resident. One remarkable achievement of her reign was the extension of cultivation to waste lands and hill tops. Trade and commerce progressed by leaps and bounds. Communication system was modernised and coinage reformed. Social mobility was ensured by removing several feudal restrictions.
Another field which received the attention of the Rani was society. Earlier there were restrictions in the wearing of ornaments, and the keeping of tiled houses without paying taxes. Such prohibitions were cancelled. The system of levying poll tax from several castes was dispensed with the Christian missions were treated hospitably. All encouragement was given for their activities. Thus there was much for the Rani to command herself.
Swati Tirunal (1829-47) Travancore witnessed tremendous progress under Swati Tirunal. He was a linguist and scholar. Himself a musician, he was also a music composer of great repute. He rightly deserves to be called as the "Nightingale" of modern Travancore. In the field of administration also there was very great progress. His name is associated with the starting of Munsiffs courts for settling minor cases. On the British Indian model, a code of laws was issued in 1835. The notorious boiling ghee ordeal was discontinued and the Hazur Cutcherry was brought down to Trivandrum.

Perhaps the most far reaching and permanent was the impact of English education inaugurated by the ruler. The Raja's Free School, an English School, was opened in 1836. Many district schools were started. An observatory was opened in Trivandrum in 1836. His reign also saw the opening of Engineering and Irrigation Departments. By removing many obvoious taxes, the Raja brought into existence a favourable atmosphere for brisk trade.
Swati Tirunal also ordered a census of the population in 1836. A revenue survey for assessing areas covered by coconut and other trees was conducted. By and large the period was a time of marvellous progress in administration and economy.

Utram Tirunal Marthanda Varma 1847-60
The reign of Utram Tirunal was also noted for uninterrupted progress in every field of government. He was for strict economy in all departments. By a royal proclamation of 1853, he emancipated future children of government slaves and provided for their rehabilitation. It was he who removed all legal hurdles in the path of covering the upper part of Shanar Women by legislation in 1859. Education also received his attention. The first port office was established at Alleppey in 1857. Thus the state was on the path of general progress.

Ayilyam Tirunal, 1860-80
Ayilyam Tirunal was a gifted ruler who not only followed in the foot-steps of his predecessors but also introduced several reforms of permanent value. He was well assisted by Sir T. Madhava Rao (1858-72), Seshaya Sastri (1872-77) and Nanu Pillai (1877-80).
Madhava Rao's name is remembered chiefly for the beginnings of agrarian reforms. The Pandarapattam Proclamation of 1865 made all serkar pattam lands, heritable and transferable. The Janmi-Kudiyan Proclamation of 1867 guaranteed fixi ty of tenure to the tenant. In 1862 the British civil and criminal proceedure codes were introduced in Travancore and smaller courts dealing with petty offences were set up. The postal service was liberalised in 1861. An Arts college was set up in 1866. A large number of English, Malayalam and Tamil schools sprang up in the length and breadth of the state. Among hospitals established, the large Civil Hospital and the hospital for treating mental patients at Trivan-drum deserve special mention.
Seshayya Sastri, who became Dewan in 1872, continued with equal ardour in introducing other reforms. He concentrated on communication and irrigation. He was instrumental in opening the Varkalai tunnel. The Trivandrum Museum and the University College were built by his initiative. In order to encourage private educational institutions, a system of grant-in-aid was started. Again it was under his orders that the first systematic and scientific census of the state was taken in 1875.
Nanu Pillai took over as Dewan in 1877. Several buildings, roads, bridges and rest-houses were constructed in his time. Audit and accounts were reformed. Much was done to improve the sanitation of the Trivandrum city. He also established several hospitals in the state. Thus in the reign of Ayilyam Tirunal, Travancore forged ahead with progressive reforms in the field of administration.
Visakham Tirunal 1880-S5 Vaisakham Tirunal was equally zealous in administration. He bestowed his early attention to the reform of the Police department. In the reorganisation made he separated the functions of the Police and judiciary. In 1883 a fresh survey and settlement of lands was ordered to be made. Handicrafts were encouraged and exhibitions organised. Irrigation works were extended.

Sri Mulam Tirunal, 1885-1924
Sri Mulam Tirunal, a sovereign of farsight and vision, took Travancore forward in the paths of many-sided developments. Even at the outset he expedi-tiously took up the survey operations which were completed in 1886. A Department of Agriculture was started in 1908 and a Director was appointed. Two model agricultural demonstration farms were opened at Trivandrum and Quilon. The Agriculturists were given the benefit of government loans for the different operations. Irrigation facilities were improved further. The Kodayar Irrigation Project inaugurated in 1895 was a real landmark in irrigation schemes. In order to co-ordinate the work of agriculture and industries, he created an Economic Development Board which did meritorious service in later years.Great impetus was given to education by a series of measures he took. Perhaps the most far-reaching step was the recognition of the principle of free primary education Likewise a Director of Public Instruction was appointed to control, direct and co-ordinate the efforts of various agencies. Private agencies were encouraged further by extending great assistance. The education of backward classes was also taken care of. Untouchables who were denied the benefit of education were not admitted into government schools. Trivandrum was made a great centre of education with the es-tablishement of a Sanskrit College, an Ayurvedic College, a second grade college for women, and a Law College. Travancore had a splended collection of oriental manuscripts. Steps were taken to publish them. An Archaeological Department was a long felt need and it also came into existence in his time. For the needs of education a good deal of libraries were also established with government grant.
In the field of medical sciences, great strides were made under Sri Mulam Tirunal. Qualified doctors were posted to various hospitals. All hospitals were properly equipped. Missionary hospitals were also given grants. Great encouragement was extended to Ayurvedic system of medicine. Vaccination was popularised. Hygiene and sanitation was strictly enforced. Towns such as Nager-coil, Trivandrum, Quilon, Alleppey and Kottayam were identified as conservancy towns.

Sri Mulam Tirunal became famous all over India, as the creator of a Legislative Council. It was brought into existence in 1888. Originally it consisted of eightmembers of whom three were non-officials. The Dewan always presided over its meetings. By its subsequent reforms of 1898,1919 and 1921, its membership was raised to 15, 21 and 50 respectively. Non-officials were elected and Rs. 5 annual tax was prescribed as voting qualification. Even women enjoyed the right to vote. Another body called the Sri Mulam Popular Assembly was also created in 1904.
Further improvements were effected in communications. Roads, bridges and canals were made all over the state. There was a plan to connect Trivandrum and Quilon by rail. Its preparatory survey was taken up in 1900-01. Thus the reign of Sri Mulam Tirunal was a time of many-sided progress.

Regency of Setu Lakshmi Bai, 1924-31
The regency of Lakshmi Bai was necessitated by the minority of Chitra Tirunal Balarama Varma the last ruler of Travancore. M.E Watts was the Diwan of Travancore. Self-governing institutions in rural areas called Village Pan-chayats were formed in 1925. The college for Women at Trivandrum was raised to a first grade college. Other ach-hievements of her reign were abolition of the Devadasi system, and the introduction of the Nair Regulation, substituting Makkdthayam in place of Marumakkathayam.

Sri Chitra Tirunal Balarama Varma, 1931-49
Sri Chitra Tirunal Balarama Varma's reign witnessed tremendous changes in the political, social and institutional history of Travancore. He took the initiative to reform the legislature. The old Legislative Council and Sri Mulam Popular Assembly created by Sri Mulam Tirunal were replaced by a bi-cameral legislature called the Sri Mulam Assembly the lower and the Sri Chitra State Council the upper houses. Sri Mulam Assembly was to consist of 72 members of whom only 10 were officials and the rest elected. The exofficio president was the Dewan. The Sri Chitra State Council had a total of 37 members, of whom 10 were officials and the rest non-officials. Both the houses had the right to discuss and vote on administrative and legislative matters. On annual budget also they exercised the right to discuss and vote on any demand. The upper house did enjoy the right to reduce any demand. The right of interpellation was exercised by both houses and also the power to move resolutions.
The reign also saw the introduction of several social reforms. The Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936 was a real land-mark in the religious history of Travancore, as it threw open all doors of temples to Avarnas. Another spectacular achievement was the establishment of the Travancore University in 1937. The establishment of the Travancore Land Mortgage Bank in 1932 and the Agricultural Debt Relief Act of 1937 were real boons to agriculturists. Another direction to which the monarch addressed himself was towards industrialisation. He opened factories such as the Travancore Rubber Works Tri vandrum, the Ceramic Factory, Kundara, the Plywood Factory, Punalur and Fertilisers and Chemicals, Elur. The Pallivasal Hydro Electric Scheme and the State Transport Services are the other laurels in his cap. In all these developmental schemes he was ably assisted by Sir C.P. Ramaswamy Ayyar, the Dewan. Travancore, it is evident, has been blazing new trails in progressive administration in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that it topped the list of Princely states under British rule.

Progressive Administration in Cochin
Saktan Thampuran, who laid the foundations of a centralised scheme of administration, died in 1805. The Genealogy of Cochin rulers after him is given below:
1. Rama Varma -1805-09
2. Kerala Varma -1809-28
3. Rama Varma -1828-37
4. Rama Varma -1837-44
5. Rama Varma -1844-51
6. Kerala Varma -1851-53
7. Ravi Varma -1853-64
8. Rama Varma -1864-88
9. Kerala Varma -1888-95
10. Rama Varma -1895-14
11. Rama Varma -1914-32
12. Rama Varma -1932-41
13. Kerala Varma -1941-43
14. Ravi Varma -1943-46
15. Kerala Varma -1946-48.
The whole period was characterised by the illustrious leadership of a long chain of able administrators, who served the different rulers as Dewans.
Col Munro (1812-18) Under Munro the whole administrative machinery was reorganised on identical basis of what he simultaneously did in Travancore. He blotted out corruption first. The Karyakars were stripped of their judicial responsibilities and made free to concentrate on revenue collection. Police force was organised. Er-nakulam was made the seat of the Huzur Court with appellate jurisdiction. Two subordinate courts were set up at Trichur and Tripunithura. Trade was earlier hampered by several taxes. These were all discontinued. Under an Accounts Departments, systematic audit and accounts was started. Administration of temples was taken up by the government. Encouragement was given to the spread of education. At the village level vernacular schools were established all over the state. Thus by all norms he was able to put the administration on a progressive track.

Nanjappayya (1815-25)
Nanjappayya also was a good administrator. He reformed the judicial system as his first resposibility. The Subordinate Courts at Trichur and Trip-punithura were substituted by Zilla Courts at Trichur and Ernakuiam. The Huzur Court was renamed as Court of Appeal. On the basis of the British code of civil and criminal procedure, a new code as introduced in Cochin. Kariakars were renamed as Tehasildars. The western system of medicine found its way into Cochin during his time. Vaccination was popularised. At Mattancherri an English school spring up under the guidance of Rev.J Dawson, a missionary. A scientific survey and settlement was also initiated by him. There was hardly no field which did not receive his attention.

Venkatasubbayya (1835-40)
Seshagiri Rao " (1825-1830) and Edamana Sankara Menon (1830-35) who took up the reins of office as Dewans after Nanjappayaya were incompetent and unsuited to continue the work started by Nanjappaya. But Venkatasubbayya, who assumed office as the Dewan from 1835 was of the mettle of which some of the illustrious Dewans were made. He carried out various measures of reform. By means of four regulations, the system of administration of justice was made to conform to British system. Survey and settlement of garden lands was made. He showered his earnest attention to the progress of agriculture. Vernacular education was systematised and two English schools were opened at Trichur and Mattancherri.
Sankara Warmer (1840-56) This was a glorious period in the history of Cochin. Sankara Warrier was a leading administrator and reformer. The finances of the state were in bad shape. But prompt collection of taxes and reduction in expenditure he was able to guarantee a surplus budget. He carried out several public works. Many roads, bridges, canals, rest houses and minor irrigation works were constructed. Trade was encouraged. Slavery was abolished in 1854. Steps were taken to further advance education and public health. It was he who laid the foundations of the present Maharaja's College and General Hospital at Ernakulam. There was allround progress in the state during the time of Sankara Warrier.

Sankunni Menon (1860-79)
Venkata Rao (1856-60) was the next Dewan. He was unworthy to hold that office and hence was removed and Sankunni Menon assumed charge as Dewan. Every department of the government received his attention. In the field of judiciary, he prescribed qualifications of lawyers and judges. Munis-siffs courts were established in all taluks. In 1865 the Department of Public Works was brought into being. Apart from constructing new roads, bridges and canals, he metalled all earlier roads. Vaipin Island was brought under the plough for paddy and coconut cultivation by putting up embankaments and drainage canals. It was through his personal interest that he got sanction for the extension of the railway line from Shor-nur to Ernakulam. For the progress of education also he did a lot of work. The English school at Ernakulam was upgraded to a Second Grade college. Likewise English schools were started at all Taluk Headquarters. For Health and hygiene his services were commendable. Apart from opening a hospital at Trichur, he improved the one existing at Ernakulam. Postal services were opened to the public. Thus in every way Sankunni Menon takes his rank among the builders of modern administration of Kerala.
Govinda Menon (1879-89) The next Dewan was Govinda Menon. He continued in the foot steps of his predecessor. The first school for girls was established by him in Trichur. The policy of helping private agencies in education was adopted by giving them the benefit of a scheme of grant-in-aid. The police department was reorganised. Following the British model a civil and criminal procedure code was introduced in Cochin. A Supreme Court of appeal was set up. The reclamation of Ernakulam foreshore was one of his great achievements. Some boundary and temple disputes were also settled by him.
A few Dewans who followed were also enlightened administrators. C. Ti-ruvenkatacharya (1889-92) encouraged education. V. Subramonia Pillai (1892-96) turned his attention to reorganisation of the medical department. A chief court with a Chief Justice and two other judges was set up by P. Rajagopalachari (1896-01), L. Locke (1901-02) and N. Pattabhirama Rao (1902-07) completed the cadastral survey began ealier. A.R. Banerji (1907-14) is remembered for his revenue settlement and maintenance of proper land records. A good deal of agrarian reforms were introduced by J.W. Bhore (1914-19). T. Vijayaraghava-chari (1919-22) paid his earnest attention to social reformation. A really significant step was taken in the direction of the establishment of a Legislative Council by P. Narayana Menon (1922-25). It was inaugurated in 1925. It was a house with 45 members of whom 30 were elected. He is also remembered for completing the preliminary stage of the Cochin Harbour Scheme. T.S. Narayana Iyer (1925-30) and C.G. Herbert (1930-35) the next Dewans saw the convertion of the railway line from Shornur to Cochin from metre guage to broad gauge. The Cochin Harbour Scheme further progressed under them.

P.K. Shammukham Chetti (1935-41)
Shammukham Chetti was a illustrious administrator. He introduced far reaching reforms in the field of administration. Reorganisation of the Secretariat was the most significant step that he took. The Cochin Harbour work was brought to a successful conclusion by him. The High Court at Ernakulam started functioning in 1938. It was in his time that popular ministers came to be charged with ministerial responsibilities.
Before independence Cochin was served by three more Dewans A.F.W. Dixon (1941-43), Sir George Boag (1943-44) and C.P. Karunakara Menon (1944-47). During their time Cochin passed through political agitation leading to the establishment of responsible government in 1947. In 1949 Cochin was amalgamated with Travancore to form the new State of Travancore-Cochin.