Painting of Kerala

Kerala has a long tradition in the field of painting. It was a tradition that was not averse to incorporate the best of the diverse cultural and aesthetic influences that it was open to. But alongside, it was also able to re-tain and preserve its own individuality.
The basic colours of murals are yellow, red, green, black and white. They were prepared from the juice of certain trees, flowers, herbs and fruits. They were "uncommonly lively and seldom or never fade." The subjects for murals were derived from religious texts. Palace and temple murals were peopled with highly stylised pictures of the gods and goddesses of the Hindu Pantheon. It was not a fanciful representation but drawn from the descriptions in the invocating, verses or 'dhyaana slokas'. Flora and fauna and other aspects of Nature were also pictured as back-drops in highly stylised manners.
The traditions of painting on walls began in Kerala with the pre-historic rock paintings found in the Anjanad Valley of Idukki district. Archaeologists presume that these paintings belong to different periods from upper Paleolithic period to early historic period. Rock engravings dating to the Mesolithic period have been discovered in two regions of Kerala at Edakkal in Wynad and at Perimka-davila in the Trivandrum district.
It is not difficult to trace the roots of the Kerala mural styles to the more ancient Dravidian art of Kalamezhuthu. This was a much more fully developed art form connected with religious rituals. It was a ritual art of sprinkling and filling up different coloured powders inside outlines sketched with the powder.
The roots of the extant mural tradition of Kerala could be traced as far back into the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. It is not unlikely that the early Kerala Murals along with its architectures (suggested earlier) came heavily under the influence of Pallava art. The oldest murals in Kerala were discovered in the rock-cut cave temple of Thirunandikkara, in the Kanyakumari district of Tamil nadu. Most of the murals now seen in Kerala belonged to the post-fifteenth century. A close study of the mural art of Kerala will be rewarding.

Padmanaabhapuram Murals
Even a casual tourist to the Pad-manabhapuram Palace will be affected by a hard sense of the past history to use a cliche, slumbers here brooding over the past. This palace-complex was once the rulers - centre of the powerful kings of Venad later the rulers of Travancore, whose family tree claims lineage to the Cheras of Kodungal-loor.
This magnificent palace is also a splendid example of native architecture at its best. And it has utilised the plentitude and excellence of Kerala wood. If one wishes to experience the grandeur of carved wood, Pad-manabhapuram is just the place.
Padmanabhapuram is now in the Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu about 65 kms. to the South of Trivandrum. A slight detour from the national highway running through Trivandrum and Nagercoil will bring you to this old palace enclosed within a four kilometre perimeter of a huge granite wall. The reign of Marthanda Varma the most powerful of the Travancore kings (1729-1758) was also the most glorious period in Padmanabha-puram's history. It was Marthanda Varma the maker of modern Travancore who gave the palace and its surroundings the present name of Padmanabhapuram or the abode of Pad-manabha. This was around 1744, before which the place was known as Kalkulam.
The construction of the palace is typical of the native architectural idiom except for the protruding balcony in the northern wing and the clock-tower near the main entrance. The tiled saddle-backed roofs with triangular gables enconcing carved wooden screens, latticed wooden windows, cool and ventilated rooms and corridors, black floors polished to a glistening smoothness, pillars of beautifully carved wood, intricately carved wooden beams and wall panels, steep narrow staircases all these add to the quaint charm of Padmanbhapuram.
The "Thaar Kottaram" or the mother palace is almost central to the complex. Near this wing is the three-storeyed "Upparikamalika," the tallest of the structures here. On the top floor is a rectangular chamber, the walls of which are enriched by well-preserved murals. This chamber was designed for meditation and retreat for the king and the heir-apparent.
The fine wood carving of the four poster bed in this room is a synthesis of Indian and Western motifs. Two lamps burn permanently in this room. The bed is believed to be hallowed by the divine presence of Ananta Say-ana Padmanabha, the Travancore royal family's chief deity of worship. The several doors of this room open out into a very narrow balcony which is enclosed by wooden ventilated panels, with dormer windows.
Murals decorate the inner walls of the room. These paintings depict gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon and are intended to create a congenial atmosphere for meditation.

On the western and eastern walls, the paintings of Ananta Padmanabha form the central theme. And both these paintings were held in reverence since it was believed to be sanctified by the presence of the particular deity. The mural on the eastern wall is only a re-painting of the original which was destroyed when the wall was struck by lighting sometime in the past.

The lines of the paintings conform to all the specifications desired by the verses sung to invoke the deity. The lord reclines on the serpent Ananta, attended by his consort Sridevi, and surrounded by several rishis and numerous celestials including the other important gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. An idol of a Siva Linga is pictured near Vishnu's right hand from which he drops flower offerings.

The mural on the eastern wall measures 224 cms by 152 cms. One feature that sets apart this mural from others of the same theme elsewhere is its capacity for creating a three-dimensional illusion. On the top right and left hand corners of the panel are paintings of the Sun and Moon personified as Gods. The Sun is personified as Soorya Narayana sitting on a lotus engulfed by his own irridescence. The Soorya Narayana is painted in golden yellow colour while the Moon is painted white. They are shown worshipped by sages and celestials and are in turn worshippers of the Supreme,Being. At the bottom of the panel are two 'Dvarapalaas' flanking the deity. As we turn to the northern wall paintings of the 'dasa avatara' of Lord vishnu and the Saiva celestials, the eleven forms of 'Rudra' can be distinguished easily. Apart from these there are paintings of Siva Tan-dava, Ganesa Pooja, Vettakkoru-makan, Krishna as Parthasarathi or Arjuna's Charioteer, the Master of masters Veda Vyasa Sankara Naray-ana a composite of Saiva and Vaish-nava energies. Mahisha Mardini Durga, Dakshinamurthi or Siva as the inter-preter of the supreme Truth, Siva as Bhairava, a painting of Sastha as a hunter on horseback, Krishna being showered with pots of jewels. Vishnu with his two consorts in Vaikuntha and a picture of Siva accepting the hand of Parvati.

The central theme on the eastern wall is a re-painted version as said earlier. Palace records show that an Iranian mural painter Saris Katchadourian wa commissioned to re-paint the mural in the early forties of this century. In this painting at the bottom middle portion is a small painting of Vishnu flanked by his consorts, bearing a close semblance to icons. The wall also includes paintings depicting Krishna Leela or the antics of Krishna. Balakrishna confronting Kama's murderous envoys like the demoness Poothana and the asura Baka who came disguised as a huge bird, Krishna dancing on the hood of Kaliyan after vanquishing it, Krishna as Damodra giving salvation to two accursed celestials who were turned into trees.
The most beautiful painting, on the southern wall is the picture of Krishna playing the flute to an entranced audience of gopikaas in the wood of Vrindavan. This can also be ranked among the finest murals of the typical Kerala style. This is an oft-painted subject. Krishna stands with crossed-feet playing his flute surrounded by a enraptured audience that consists of Gopikas Cows, birds and beasts of Vrdindavanan. The entire subject is contained within a frame of 128 cms by 100 cms. This mural stands out by virtue of its harmony in the application of colours, Green, Ochre, White, Golden, Yellow and dark Blue blend and matched with each other. Another remarkable feature is the converging effect of the lines of vision of the Gopikas and Krishna the central figure. Yet another noteworthy mural on this wall is the coronation of Rama.
Other paintigns include a painting of Subramanya, Siva in his Ardha-nareswara (half male and half female) form, Vishunu's main weapon the Su-darsana Chakra personified as a celestial being, Vishnu holding Maha-lakshmi, a couple of pictures of Vishnu with his consorts, Rama as Vira Raghava the personification of courage and daring Bhadra-Kali, a Siva Linga and the Siva family, a picture of Narasimha in a Yogic stance, Siva with Parvati and twelve Vishnu Purushas.
One can easily distinguish three individual styles in the wall paintings of Padmanabhapuram. Most of the paintings on the upper halves of the walls and the paintings on the western wall were done by a master-artist while a large part of the lower halves were filled by a lesser artist. The entire re-paintings on the eastern wall were done by another person, whose style reveals a marked post-Vijayanagara influence.
It is not incorrect to assume that the murals except on the eatern wall were painted during Marthanda Varma's occupation of the palace. The style in general resembles the original paintings of the Padmanaabha Swami temple of Trivandrum district. The elongation of the face and body of the figures, pouting lips and sharp acquiline noses are the salient features of this style. Above everything else what radiates through these pictures is the absolute reverence the Travan-core royal family to Vaishnavism.

Gajendra Moksha of Krishnapuram
Krishnapuram's history is pregnant with faded memories of a bygone era. This unpretentious village near Kayamkulam was once the abode of the heirs-apparent of the Kayamkulam royal house. "
Near the old temple of Krishna from which the area got its name is an old but well-kept palace. Though much smaller in size than Padmanabhapu-ram palace, this is a much more typical example of Kerala's architectural style. This palace was constructed in the reign of King Marthanda Varma who annexed Kayamkulam to Tiru-vitamcore in 1746 A D.
The double-stroyed palace incorporates the salient features of Kerala's architectural individuality. The rooms branch out from the several courtyards. Dormer windows and narrow passage-ways are among the other characteristic features. Wood is used with abundance as in all other old palaces of Kerala.
This palace also contains one of the largest mural panels in Kerala. This famed Gajendra Moksha mural that measures fourteen feet by eleven feet is on the ground floor of the palace on the west from where one can walk down into the palace pool.
The Bhagavata exploits of Lord Vishnu. A great devotee of Vishnu, King Indradyumna, was cursed by Sage Agastya to be reborn as an elephant. The sage's words proved true and Indradyumna is re-born as Gajendra or the king of elephants. One day as he stepped into a lake to drink his fill, he was caught by a crocodile. Though he fought to shake it off with all his might the crocodile only tightened its grip. The story runs that Gajendra remained thus for many years. Finally in great despair, he cried piteously to the Lord to help him. Hearing his entreaties Vishnu descended expeditiously from heaven on the back of Gardua, his celestial transport.
This is the dramatic moment that has been immortalised in Krishnapuram palace. Garuda's wings fanned out in flight dominate the panel. This mythical bird with human attributes carries his Divine master with great devotion. At the same time their expressions are studies in contrast. If Garuda's eyes smoulder with rage at the stubbornness of the crocodile, Vishnu's countenance is filled with mercy and compassion as he puts an end to the agony of Gajendra by killing the crocodile.
The mural also depicts several celes-tical beings includings rishis, birds, beasts and goblins of the forest hailing the Lord. Adjacent to the main subject on the top right hand corner of the panel is a picture of Vishnu seated in Vaikuntha surrounded by celestials. Constrained by lack of space perhaps, the picture of the crocodile lacks conviction. A line of female figures worshipping Balakrishna forms a border panel at the bottom. These female figures like those of the later paintings of Panayannar Kavu display a post Vijayanagara or Nayak influence.
The lines of this wall painting are comparatively weak. But it is noteworthy for its composition which seems to incorporate the hallmarks of good art. The painting has linear rhythm, a harmony in the choice of colours, a certain proportion and balance in perspective. But what holds our attention more are the angular convergence of the lines of vision of Vishnu, Gajendra, the crocodile and Garuda. Among the colours used ochre red and blue-green pre-domi-nate over white, black, green and red.
Gajendra Moksha was a favourite theme of Indian sculptors and artists. Excellent sculptures on the above theme with minor deviations are to be found at Barhhut and Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh) and at the three Pattadakkal temples of Karnataka.
In Kerala this theme appears as the subject of frescoes in the temples at Karat (Calicut), Shornoor, Va-niyankulam (Palghat), Kidangoor (Kottayam) and Kodumon (Quilon). But as works of art the wood sculptures at Kaviyoor'and Chathankulan-gara are superior.
The popularity of this theme was probably due to the great emotional appeal of the story. When any devotee in distress turns to the Lord for help, he will surely be rewarded. It also brought home succinctly the fact that faith in God was stronger and greater than physical strength.

Panayannarkavu Murals
Panayannarkavu is one of those few temples in the State where the Sapta Matas or the Seven Mother Goddesses, are worshipped as the presiding power. Chamundi the fiercest of them all gets the predominant place as Kali.. There is also a temple of Shiva in the premises. Situated in a luxuriant grove near Parumala and girdlied by a tributary of Pampa, this apparently modest temple is only about two miles from Mannar a village well known for its bell-metal lamps and vessels.
Until recently esoteric tantric rituals were conducted in this Sakteya temple. From an allusion to this temple in the 14th century Malayalam epistolary poem "Unnu Neeli Sandesam" countless legends and stories sprung and gained credence about the sacrifices and rituals practised to invoke the blesssings of the ferocious goddess. The poem mentions in figurative language the practice of sacrificing elephants to appease the goddess.
And even today the goddess inspires fear and awe in the faithful. But as one walks into the temples and beholds the paintings around the shrines the initial fear vanishes and a rare calm settles in. Familiar, stories from the Puranas in gentle and pleasant tones adorn the walls..
The shrine of the Sapta Matas is rectangular in structure Murals are painted along all the available wall space.
Probably these were done at the transitional phase of Vaishnavite influence on Saktheya cult. Vaishnav-ism helped to alleviate the fearsom-enss of the tantric rituals once practised here. However, the murals on the front of the shrine and also those around the square shrine of Siva were painted much later, presumably after the transition was complete. Like elsewhere the subjects of the frescoes were inspired by stories and episodes from the Devi Mahatmyam, the Saiva and Vasihnava Puranas and the Bhagavata.
Surely the most fascinating among the paintings around the main shrine are those depicting the encounter between Durga and Mahisha, the buffalo-headed asura and her subsequent victory; Siva's terrible and awe-inspiring Aghoraform; Kirata Arjuniyam where Kirata - Siva or Siva as junter making nought of Arjuna's skill and strength to humble the latter's pride and ultimately presenting him with his divine arrow, the Pasupathastra, Goddess Tripura Sundari in a rare form with ten arms and five heads, seated on a lotus; Ardhanareeswara; the Dance of Siva; Vigneswara Pooja, a picture of Sooryanarayana a composite image of Vishnu and the sun; Sasthas hunter; the gory end of Hirnayakasha in the leonine clutches of Narasimha and Goddess Parvati on horse-back riding side-saddle. There are also pictures of Krishnaleela, Subramanya, Bhadrakali, Annapoorna, Yogavishnu, Venugopalakrishna, Yakshi and Draupadi Swayamvaram.
Mahishamardini Durga predominates the southern wall. The Sapta Matas are also pictured close by as gazing intently at the fray. Each one of them can be identified easily, each represented as seated on its special celestial vehicle. Brahmi is on a swan, Maheswari rides a bull, Kaumari a peacock while Vaishavi is on Garuda. Boar-headed Varahi has a lion and Indrani sits majestically atop an elephant. Chaamundi has her own strange vehicle -- the Vetala, neither animal nor human. This hideous mythical creature is also associated with Kali.

The mural of Sooryanarayana is a fairly rare subject in temple frescoes. Statuesque and serene, the God sits crosslegged on a lotus in a chariot pulled by seven horses and ridden by Aruna, the sun's charioteer. The sun's spreading rays are painted as swift shafts strung from the bows of the two small figures on either side of the main figures. The image of the sun dwarts all the other objects in the painting suggestive perhaps of the omnipresent and omnipotent power of the sun. This frescoe is far more beautiful in colour and composition than the murals on the same subject in the Tali temple at Kottayam or the Triprangode Siva temple in Malappuram.
Even though the murals around the Siva temple belong to a later date, many of these frescoes can be ranked among the finest of its kind elsewhere. On the eastern wall are a few frescoes depicting dramatic moments from the Ramayana. These are doubtless the best murals in this temple.
The battle between Rama and Ravana, the fall of the great King of Lanka his queen's lament over his death and the re-union between Rama and Sita and lastly Rama's coronation as king of Ayodhya are the group of Ramayana murals. Though there are countless frescoes portraying these subjects in various temples and palaces in the State, nowhere else is it so brilliantly and beautifully done. One has only to compare these frescoes with the Ramayana frescoes say at Mattancheri to get an idea of the remarkable beauty of these murals. The group of mourners led by Queen Mandodari "who looked like the goddess of grief incarnate" is one of the most lively paintings in the panel. In the picture showing the re-union of Rama and Sita after the capture of Lanka, the artist has captured the moment of ineffable happiness which is beyond excitement or tears. But the face of Lakshmana, mirrors his great joy and relief unmistakably.
Ravana's fall is a remarkably composed frame. Though Ravana had seemed invincible with his ten heads and twenty arms and numerous weapons, Rama's arrows never strayed from their target. This painting has captured the action of the mighty duel and the moment of the defeat and fall of the King of Lanka with a sure touch of drama.
Other paintings include pictures of Mahavishnu seated with his two spouses Lakshmi and Bhoomidevi in Vaikuntha, Anantasayana Vishnu, Vishnu's ten incarnations, Vishnu Maya playing with a ball. Durga after the destruction of Mahisha, the, mischievous antics of young Krishna, Ganesha Pooja, Narasimha, Paravati in bridal attire, and pictures of Siva as Nataraja, Dakshina Murti or the Lord knowledge and Kalasamhara-moorthi or the destroyer of Yama.
The murals of Panayannarkavu are notable for their linear accuracy and agreeable colour combinations. It is little difficult to date these paintings. We can however presume that these frescoes were done in two phases. The murals around the small rectangular chief shrine were in all probability the earliest paintings. The paintings on the square shrine were completed later, presumably during the closing years of the reign of the king of Chirava a branch of the Odanadu Royal House, it was during this time that Vaishnava cult assimilated Sakti worship to effect a more colourful ritualistic pattern.

Ettumanoor Murals
When you travel eleven kilometres to the north of Kottayam town you will reach Ettumanoor and its centuries-old temple of Siva. The small town has all the noise and bustle of any small provincial town. But as one travels northward on the main highway the ambience of the temple infuses a rare kind of peace.
The deity of Ettumanoor still inspires awe and fear in his devotees. This is Siva as Sarabha Moorti, his most fearsome or roudra form. This is the Omnipotent power that can crush evil underfoot and at the same time grant favours to the faithful.
Ettumanoor temple is also a museum of rare and beautiful works of art and sculptures in wood and stone. The walls of the central shrine or sanctum are panelled with intricate and delicately carved wood. These panels form a kind of screen around the circular shrine. On the inner and outer walls of the western gopuram or entrance tower are the large-sized paintings that have been acclaimed by artists and art critics alike, like Ananda Coomaraswamy, Stella Kramrisch, Fuku Akino and C. Sivarama Murti. The most outstanding among the paintings is the mural of Siva as Na-taraja. This is on southern side of the inner wall face of the gopuram. The painting is quite large measuring 360 cms. in width and 217 cms. in height. The dancing Siva is of course the focal centre of the painting. It is enclosed within a circular outline. The dance depticted is that described as Talasamsphotita' by Bharata Muni in Natya Shastra. Everyone appears enthralled by the dance and the dancer. Their eyes bespeak their enjoyment and adoration.
To the right of the central figures, one can easily distinguish Mahavishnu playing the mizhavu (a large jar type percussion instrument) Indra playing the flute, Brahma keeping rhythm with cymbols. Kali on her vehicle Vethala and young Ganapati and his mouse. On the left are the consorts of the Trin-ity-Parvati, Saraswati and Lakshmi-all watching intently. Discernible also in the group are young Kartikeya on his peacock several rishis with their hands raised in adoring worship. Nandi the bull of Siva is also on the left in his characterstic bovine posture with his head cradled between the fore and hind legs. His eyes are not raised towards his master. But there's an expression of ineffable bliss as he listens intently to the celestial gathering, Parvati holding a lotus in her right hand and Kali on the ugly and unshapely demoness Vetala, with her hands raised high in devout worship are the most impressive among the group of spectators.
What is remarable is the adroitness of the painter in achieving a convergence of the lines of vision of the figures to a focal point, viz., the eyes of Siva himself, which in turn seem to be in communion with eternity. This is the most noteworthy feature of the mural.
Siva's matted locks are strewn behind him and form a maze of radiating lines. Caught in the locks are flowers like the lotus and champak probably flung by the spectators, coiling serpents and the four-armed three-legged Bhringi.
The Siva of the mural is sixteen armed, each hand holding either his traditional weapons or a symbol of blessing. Under his left foot squirms the dwarfish demon Apasmara, while his right leg is raised in dance. Apasmara is drawn holding on to the tail end of a large hooded serpent. The painting's hall-mark is the sense of suppressed movement captured in each and every figure.
The late Ananda Coomaraswamy in "An introduction to Indian Art" (1913) had pointed out that the Nata-raja paintings is the only extant specimen of the old Dravidian style of painting. "... of Dravidian painting the only old example to which I can refer is the fine eight-armed Nataraja fresco of the Siva temple at Ettumanoor in North Travancore but no systematic search for paintings has been made in the older parts and on the more neglected surfaces of Travancore and other southern temples." Stella Kramrisch art historian and art critic (presently an hon : curator at the Philadelphia Museum of Art) was quite poetic in her appraisal". Like a gidan-tic butterfly caught in a stained glass window and transformed into its luminosity is the shape of the dancing Siva." Coomaraswami's claim that the Ettumanoor mural is the earliest example of Dravidian mural art stands disputed since the discovery of the paintings of Chittanavasal and Kan-chipuram (7th century).
Adjacent to the Nataraja mural is a painting of Siva as 'Aghora murti' his most fearsome form. The fierce mien and the ash-smeared body with garlands of snakes and skulls instils deadly fear in the beholder. He is represented with protruding teeth and rounded eyes and is painted in a bluish black hue. He is eight-armed each hand either bearing a deadly weapon or a musical instrument such as the trident, bow and arrow sword, rattle drum, shield or a skull bowl. His other ornaments include a garland of skulls beside snakes. The long garland of lotus buds forming a decorative border to the painting subdues the fierce aspect of the picture. In olden days kings and warriors worshiped Aghora Siva before setting forth on battles to bring them victory.
On the northern wall of the western entrance is yet another large mural, perhaps the largest in Kerala. It measures 580 cms. in length and 247 cms in height. Lord Padmanabha reclines on his serpent attended by his consorts Sree Devi and Bhoodevi.
As in the other painting there is a gathering of celestials and rishis here also gazing with adoration at the Lord. The theme follows closely all the iconographical details exclusive to Kerala's indigenous style of sculptural art and painting on the subject. Vishnu is shown offering flowers on a Siva linga with his right hand, even as he is resting on Ananta. This in no way establishes the superiority of Siva among the Trinity since Siva is also seen as a worshipper among the group of celestials near the head of Vishnu. The four-headed Brahma sits on the lotus that sprouts from Vishnu's naval. Vishnu's celestial vehicle and humble devotee Garuda stands with folded hands near the Lord's feet. Shree Devi and Bhoodevi and the Gardua appear completely unaware of everything except the Lord.
Smaller painted panels adorn the outer walls of the main entrance. They include the two Dwarapalakas, or divine sentries flanking the entrance, Krishna playing the flute, "the Vasthrapaharana" and Saastha as a hunter on horseback. In "the Vasthrapaharana" painting Krishna is painted sitting astride a loftly bough playing qn his reed. Four Gopikas are shown coming out of the river, imploring him for their clothes that he hard stolen from the river bank. Another four seem to have retrieved their clothes. Nowhere else in Kerala is the above theme so sensually depicted.
Although there is no sound evidence it is widely assumed that these murals were drawn as early as the sixteenth century A.D. after Coomaraswamy, on the grounds that the temple was renovated during that period. But considering the various stylistic features it is possible to date these paintings as belonging to the late medieval period ie. late 17th century or early 18th century.
What stands today is only a retouched version of the orginals. More than twenty five years ago these murals were given a "face lift." This has marred its ancient quaintness irretrievably. One has only to compare the copy of the Nataraja painting exhibited in the Sri Chitralayam, the Tri-vandrum Museum Art Gallery, with the retouched painting at the temple. Something has been wiped, the retouched painting at the temple. Something vital has been wiped away by the retouching brush an aura of time-lessness.

Pundarekapuram Murals
Pundarekapuram is a small temple atop a littele rise called Midayikun-nam near Thalayolaparampu in Kot-tayam. Architecturally it is not very different from any typical village temple of Kerala. A tiled and saddle-roofed square 'chuttampalam' encloses a square sactum sacndorum. Appended to the square enclosure is a small 'balikkalpura'. The idol worshipped here is the image of Vishnu sitting astride his celestial vehicle Garuda together with Bhoodevi. This is a rare icon.
What makes this temple so special to the art lover apart from the rare idol are the exquisite paintings on the walls of the sanctum. Eight large panels and about twenty smaller ones features episodes from the Hindu myths and Puranas.
There's a fine picture of Siva and Parvathi sitting beneath the Kalpavrik-sha; a powerful picture of Durga vanquishing the buffalo-headed demon Mahisha, the pranks of Krishna the devine boy of Ambadi, a picture of a Yakshi, the dangerous seductress of legends. Rama Pattabhishekham or the coronation of Sri Rama; Siva Than-dava and a picture of Sastha astride a horse-to point out a few of the striking paintings at Pundarekapuram.
Since the temples is tucked away in a rarely trodden village road, these paintings have for long remained relatively obscure. But these murals, no doubt can hold their own against the better known wall-paintings of Pad-manabhapuram and Mattancherri palaces. In all probability these murals were painted during the latter half of the 18th century. The paintings on the eastern and northern walls still look fresh in spite of the passage of years. In contrast the murals on the western wall and the two panels on the southern wall look faded and mouldy, probably because these two walls face much of the harshness of the monsoons.
A large panel on the northern wall has a dramatic picture of the vengeful and fiery-eyed Durga confronting the demon Mahisha. It is impressive not only by its sheer size (1.45ms x 1.65ms.) but also for the fury and force that it seems to convey. A popular subject, the story of Mahisha Mardini can be seen on the walls of several temples, for instance, at MunnoQtti-mangalam (Alleppey), Chemmanthitta (Trichur), Arppookkara (Kottayam), Morazha (Cannanore) and Panayanar-kavu (Pathanamthitta). But in most of the above said temples it is not the battle that is illustrated but the picture of the triumphant Durga, standing on the severed head of Mahisha.
Near the 'Mahishasura Mardini' is a painting of an Yakshi, she is standing beneath a palmyra (Borassus Flabelli Formis) palm. Every frond of the palm-leaves is exquisitely worked out in her left hand she holds an oval-shaped mirror. It looks as if the Yakshi is giving the finishing touches to her make-up.
The Yakshis or Yakshinis are generally considered to be the companions of the major goddesses. Legends credit her with a dual personality. The enchanging seductress can turn into a blood-sucking vampirel. The painters and sculptors of yore who invariably drew inspiration from the dhyana-slokas portray here as standing beneath palm-trees. This full-bosomed and dark-haired beauty is the Circe of our groves who lures men to their doom.
The three false doors around the sanctum are filled with pictures of the antics of young Krishna—at his favourite past time of stealing milk an butter, sucking the lifeblood out of Pootana, the demoness dancing on the head of the serpent Kaliyan, fliching the garments of the gopikas and so forth.
The last panel of the northern false door has a charming picture of Krishna playing the flute to an enrap-tured audience consisting of gopikas and frolicking cattle of Vrindavan. Beast and man are lost in the magical notes flowing from the divine flute. The painting which has fully captured the bliss and the peace of an idyllic pastoral life also enwraps the onlooker with a rare kind of quiet.
The choice of coloures shows a deliberate attempt to achieve a harmonious blending. The central figure, Krishna is painted in dark green. The colours of the gopikas flanking him on the right and left are light green and ochre respectively. Radha is apparently the fair figure in the group of three gopikas behind Krishna, True, Radha is not described as a fair beauty in the dhyan slokas. But in the murals of Kerala it is interesting to note that figures described as dark are often portrayed in light colour. The Virndavan mural of Pundarekapuram bears a close resemblance to a mural of the same subject a Padmanabhapu-ram palace. Apparently both the mu-ralists must have relied in the same dhyana mantra.
Sri Rama Pattabhisheka or the coronation of Sri Rama arrests our attention as we turn to the eastern wall. The King of Ayodhya wears the crown with benign grace. Sita his consort is seated to the left on the throne. The group of onlookers include rishis, the other princes of King Dasaratha, Hanumaan and the other main characters from the Ramayana.
The parrot-headed Suka and the deer-headed Rishyashringa as well as Vasishtha, Vamadeva and Kasyapa can be identified among the rishis La-kshmana, Ramma's half-brother and always his shadow can also be picked out easily from the gathering on the smaller panel, which includes Bharata, Satrughna, Sugreeva, Guha and Vibhishana, Despite its relatively small size this painting is quite impressive as any of its counterparts in Mattan-cheri or Padmanabhapuram palaces.
The most magnificent of the pictures at Pundarekapuram is on the northern and eastern walls of the sanctum. Astride a resplendent horse is Sastha, the God of hunting along with a retinue of servants and dogs. The hurry and confusion of a chase is superbly conveyed. Many of the beasts of the forests have been ensnared in the rope-net bursting with the snarling clawing wild pigs, leopards, bears etc.
Holding a bow, a broadsword at his side and wearing an enigmatic smile, the divine hunter's eyes bespeak his purpose. The horse is a very realistic representation when one remembers that horses were quite rare in Kerala in the ancient and medieval days. The white colour of the house is mixed with tawny shadings. Particular care has been shown in embellishing the horse with glittering, jewel-studded bridles.
Many read a symbolic meaning in the picture. The dark forest is symbolic of the human mind and the wild beasts that roam the forest are the vices in man like lust, anger, greed etc. Sastha capturing the beasts of the forest is symbolic of the victory of the mind over the senses, leading to the right way of life which in turn leads to moksha (salvation).
Undoubtedly this mural will rank high if a list is drawn of the ten best murals of Kerala. The bold lines, vivid colours, the exciting theme and the dramatic portrayal are probably the factors that contribute to its timeless beauty.
On the southern wall there's a large picture of the rotund believed and elephant-headed god Ganapati at his elaborate breakfast. The drawings of the attendants give us an idea about the people of the artist's contemporary world (18th century) their mode of dressing and styling their hair.
Though there is little relation between the murals with each portraying a particular theme there's binding organic unity underlying the surface. This is achieved by the feeling the might and the benevolence of the deities painted, coupled with the sense of awe and humility aroused in the devout worshipper. And this organic unity is characteristic of the mural art of Kerala's temples.
Another characteristic of the Pun-darekapuram paintings and Kerala murals in general are the boldness and accuracy of the lines which give a unique force to the paintings. Ochre-red, ochre-yellow, blue, blue black, parrot green, yellowish green, turquoise blue and white are the colours predominantly used in Pundarekapu-ram. Among these colours ochre-red is the most predominant and it seems to be the perfect complement to the pervasive green of the landscape of Kerala.

Mattancheri Murals
Mattancheri in Cochin has a distinct smell of trade and commerce even today. The passage of the years has only retouched her trading face. Large godowns still stand in and around the quayside.
Mattancherri has also boon a former capital of the erstwhile rules of Cochin. When the adventurers from over the seas came to Cochin seeking trade, Mattancherri also bustled as a brisk trading port. First the Portuguese and then later the Dutch beguiled rulers with gold and gifts in exchange for spices especially black pepper.
To please His Highness Veera Kerala Varma Thampuran (1537-61) the Portuguese built a palace and also gifted a golden crown. According to Huzur records the Palace was built and presented to the Cochin Raja in 1552 A.D. With the coming of the Dutch in 1663 A.D. the trade, rivalries between them often led to bloody skirmishes . From contemporary literary works such as the poems of Melpathoor Narayana Bhattathiripad as well as from the accounts of Fr. Bartalomeo if s not difficult to get an idea about the Mattancheri Court.
The palace originally built by the Portuguese had some extensions done by the Dutch. These were the porticos on the east and south of the palace, the decorated ceiling of the Coronation Room. Paradoxically the name Dutch palace, somehow stuck to it.
The travel itinerary of foreign visitors or tourists especially if they are on a pilgrimmage of art and culture, will definitely include a visit to the Mattabcherri Palace. Architecturally the palace is a synthesis of Portuguese, Dutch and native styles. The arched windows and the thick laterite and mortar walls are definitely European. While the total ambience created by the presence of a pool and three shrines each of Shiva, Vishnu and Pazhayannour Bhagavati, the family deity of the Cochin ruler, is thoroughly indigenous.
Mattancheri is an artist's delight. For here are some very beautiful frescoes. The walls of some of the palace chambers are adorned with paintings done in the traditional mural style of Kerala. The late Amrita Sher Gill, the well-known painter was greatly fascinated by these frescoes when she visited the Palace in 1937. In a letter to her sister, she was full of praise for these "perfectly marvellous old paintings. She was surprised by the technique and the amazing knowledge of form and the power of observation of the painters. In her words, these frescoes are more powerful than the Ajantan Frescoes, even though the latter are superior from the painting point of view.

Mattancheri are compared with the wood sculptures at the above mentioned temple; they are slightly inferior in representation. In the Mattancheri murals there's an element of realism when compared to the wood sculptures and relief which are always highly stylised.
Besides the Ramayana murals there are a few other paintings, in this room. They include paintings of Ganapati Pooja and Krishna Leela. It's fairly apparent that these panels were later additions by some mediocre artists. So too the few paintings in the small staircase room.
Murals in the Staircase Room
The themes are several and various in this room which measures 18 feet by 17 feet. The paintings include a family portrait of Siva, Vishnu in his Sankarshana form, Ardhanariswara or Siva as half-male and half-female, the coronation of Rama, Kirata-Shiva, Anantashayanam, few themes from the Devi Mahathmyam, paintings of the ten incarnations of Vishnu and also an unfinished painting of Vishnu. The picture of the deity of Trippunithura Temple which is painted in the adjacent room is comparatively good.
These paintings are fair imitations of the highly complex iconographical art of Kerala. The paintings of Vishnu and Goddess Durga will surely hold the attention of those interested in iconography.
The most pre-dominant colour used in these paintings is of course ochre. Apart from ochre, there are also shades of green like light green and parrot green, black, golden yellow, blue black, blue and white. The colour pigments are as usual extracts of minerals and vegetable dyes.
Paintings in the lower Chambers
The short flight of steps leads down to a small and not so tall inner chamber. In this room as well as in the room to the east of it are several painted wall panels. These ladies' chambers are nearly one fourths below ground level.
The most beautiful frescoes of Mattancheri are doubtless the murals in these rooms. The main theme is the nuptials of Shiva and Parvati. These paintings are only outline sketches in ochre. Amrita Sher Gill was fascinated by the effortless ease with which these ochre lines seemed to flow over the white wall surface. Apparently the artist must have drawn inspiration from Kalidasa's Kumara Sambhava (The Birth of Kumara). What is most fascinating is the picturisation of Par-vati's bridal toilet and bridal procession. Instead of Himavan it is Vishnu who is shown giving away the bride. This is one among the best murals of Kerala.
The adjacent chamber is also decorated with paintings. The dance of Siva and Mohini, the jealous anger of Parvati, Krishna's miraculous feat of holding aloft the Govardhan mountain, a family portrait of Shiva and Krishna flirting with a group of enamoured gopikas.
Though written off as a highly erotic piece of art it is quite notable and distinctive among the palace frescoes. The artist seems to have fully understood the 'Sringara' of Madana Gopalakrishna. The reclining Madana Gopalakrishna hold his flute in his charactersitic way with the first two hands. With the other six hands he caresses and fondles the fifteen gopikas, flocking around him. There are only very few paintings displaying erotic love with such intense passion. One cannot help wonder whether this picture was not done under the influence of the Tantric practices of Vaishnavas, which was also once very popular in Kerala.
The picture of Krishna holding up the Govardhan mountain conveys very cleverly the drama of the moment. While protecting his kinsmen from the fury of Indra, Krishna's face also mirrors a mischievous amusement. The expressions of the people who flock around him speak eloquently the drama and the trauma of the moments. A frightened child goes instinctively into the arms of its mother. Obviously scared by the roar of thunder, a boy closes his ears. Besides these the general expression of the group is awe and wonder. An interesting feature of this painting is the copious representation of the wooded mountain, showing hunting scenes and the various animals and birds of the forest. It seems likely that the artist who had painted this picture must have been subconciously inspired by the mimetic rendering of "Kailasodharnam" of Koodiyattom.
If ochre is the most predominant colour in the upper chamber, tur-quiose, golden, yellow and a light shade of blue add a rare charm and softness to the paintings of the lower rooms, which were the ladies' quarters. Directness, strength, vitality and rhythm are the characteristic features of the Ramayana paintings. Freshness of colour however dominates the Bhagavatham murals.
In the lower rooms many scenes of copulating animals are cleverly painted wherever occasion permits. It seems likely that these paintings and the painting of Madana Gopalakrishna and the flirtatious dance of Siva and Vishnumaya were an overt attempt to instruct the royal ladies in erotic love.
The female figures in the frescoes of the lower chambers are charmingly voluptuous. By Vatsyayan's criterion of feminine groups, these women can be classified as belonging to the category of Padminis. On the other hand the women of the Padmanabhapuram murals can easily be indentified as belonging to the Sankhini category.
Chemical treatment of the walls in recent times had revealed a small drawing of a girl dancing before Tippu Sultan, which is clearly a clue to the date of the murals in the room. Tippu Sultan and his army had marched to Cochin in 1776, during the regin of King Rama Varma (1775-1790). Before the discovery of this painting the lower-room paintings were considered to be a little later than this.
Anujan Achan ascribed the Ramay-ana paintings to the 16th century ie. during the period of Portuguese supremacy. But taking into account the various stylistic features 17th century seems to be the more plausible date for those paintings.
The Bhagavatham paintings of the bed chamber and the paintings in the stair case room were in all probability done at the end of the 17th century or later by an inferior artist. But it is very clear that the murals of the lower rooms were also painted during the end of the 17th century by a truely great artist who belonged to the line of renowned muralists of Kerala.

Kottakkal Murals
Kottakkal owes its fame today as one of the chief centres of Ayurvedic treatment. But formerly it was better known as an important eastern principality of the Zamorians of Calicut. Before it became the eastern seat of the Zamorins, this area was governed by Karuvayoor Moos as a representative of the King of Valluvanad.

In the Sanskrit and Malayalam literature of medieval times, Kottakkal was referred to as Sweta Durgam and Venkatakotta respectively. The ruins of an old fort and a few temples are the only extant monuments of the past. Venkata Tevar Siva Temple is situated close to the ruins of the fort. On the walls of the square sanctum of this temple are some fine nineteenth century frescoes.
The date of the paintings, the names of the artists who painted them, and their patron are all inscribed on the southern side of the shrine. According to the inscription these murals were painted in the period between 1041 and 1053 of the Malayalam Era (1866-78).
The Chief artist was a certain Sankaran Nair of Elangamadom who has also mentioned that he was a disciple of Poonthanathu Krishna Pisharody. Sankaran Nair was assisted by his disciple Bharata Pisharody. These murals were painted under the patronage of a certain Makayiram Tirunal Eralppaddu of Kottakkal.
There are about 40 paintings here. While some subjects cover the entire length of the walls, a few are painted in a miniature fashion divided and contained in upper and lower pan-' els. The most remarable qualities of several of these paintings are their eyecatching colours and clear,firm lines. A closer scrutiny will reveal the iconographical standards adhered to in the creation of these godly figures. The selection of subjects and the manner of picturisation bespeak its influence and precedence. It was a product of the Shaktheya cult that had imbibed a synthesis of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
Above the base of the shrine the walls project and curve outwards, as part of its integral architectural design. This and the several niches must have hampered the mural artists. But they seem to have overcome their limitations by filling up the niches with designs of entwined creepers and flowers.

As one circumvents the shrine clockwise the first painting one sets eyes on is the picture of the Siva family seated underneath the Kalpavrik-sha the mythical Tree of boons. Par-vati is painted on the left of Siva and Ganesa and Subramonia are at their feet. This painting is a pictorial rendering of the dhyana sloka 'Sakthi Panchakshri'. This is also the main dhyana or mantra with which the Siva Linga here is invoked.
Then follows several pictures of the many manifestations of the God of Destruction. Amongst these are included Siva as Arthanariswara or half-male and half-female, eight-armed Aghora Siva with a face and figure that will inspire terror in the devotee. Kir-taarjuniyam is pictured with Kirata Siva gazing at Arjuna's efforts to regain lost prowess by worshipping a hastily made Siva Linga.
A full length (164 cms long) fresco of Lord Varaha or the incarnation of Vishnu as Boar, holding aloft Goddess earth, is quite remarkable. There is also a picture of Vishnu playing the flute and a mural of the elephant headed and rotund-bellied God Ganesa being worshipped by many rishis.
Siva's dance, Saraswathi or the Goddess of knowledge and learning seated on a lotus, another painting of Goddess Rajarajeswari, Siva as 'Dakshi-namurti or the Yogi God of all knowledge, Dhanwantari or the divine physician, pictures of Durga, Bhadrakali, Ganapathi worshipped by two sages, Siva and Parwati can also be seen. The paintings of Rajarajeswari, Sar-aswati and Durga are reminiscent of the invocations in Soundarya Lahari' by Sankaracharya. These not so large murals, are notable as representatives of highly idealised representation of feminine charms.
The western wall of the shrine has an unusual painting of Sastha riding on an elephant. Sastha is generally seen on horse back with all the paraphernalia of a hunt, Goddess Anna-poorneswari, Mahishamardhini Durga setting forth for battle with her horrid retinue, the Lord of Vaikunatha with his spouses, Sridevi and Bhoodevi, Vishnu's Narasimha avatar drawn here with as several as eight arms and a painting of Goddess Parvati seated on a horse are the other frescoes on the western wall that stands out by virtue of its bold, clear lines.
Amongst these the picture that closely follows iconographical specifications is the one of Parvati on horseback. This is a unique Kerala concept. Tales of the boons in worshipping Parvati in this particular form are numerous. Just as young girls who desired worthy husbands prayed devoutly to Parvati in her Swayamvara Kanya form with a garland of flowers in her hands, young men begged for favours from Parvati on horseback for the hands of fair maidens. But a word of caution. The rituals of worship must be strictly adhered to. For even a slight faux-pas can bring grave consequences like lunacy. The above mentioned subject is also beautifully depicted in a few other temples in Kerala like those at Vaikom Siva Temple, Triprayar Sri Rama temple and the Padmanabhaswami temple in Trivandrum.
It is difficult to pick out the most outstanding fresoces on the northern side. Each one is better than the other, it would appear, Krishna as Parthasarathi or Arjuna's charioteer, Krishna as Venugopala with his in-seperable flute, Krishna's amorous overtures to Radha, Parasurama, Garuda, Lord Vishnu's celestial transport feminised as Garuda Sakthi, a meditating Sreekrishna, Siva flirting with Vishnu Maya, Krishna surrounded by Gopikas, Yogasana Krishna being showered with jewels by Gopikas, Sri Rama with Sita listening to a rendering of his own story by Hanumaan, Sankara Narayana Composite of Sankara (Siva) and Narayana (Vishnu) symbolic of the oneness of the Trinity are the several themes here. But if asked to single out the finest among these, the choice would fail on that of Siva flirting with Vishnu-Maya, a guise that Vishnu once adopted to kill Bhasmasura. Siva's consort Parvati is shown near-by seated on a bull with her head averted in jealous anger. It has deftly captured two very humane emotions charmingly. And this mural though too sen suous for puritan eyes can be easily classed among ten outstanding murals of Kerala.
The Painting of Garuda Shakthi provides great insight into its inconogra-phic importance. Worship of Garuda as Shakti or female energy behoved itself to the tantrics among the Vaish-navites, who considered this deily Garuda Shakti to be a speedier dispenser of boons. Vishnu holding Ma-halakshmi, Rama revealing his cosmic form to Vibhishna and the monkey troops, are the other murals on the northern wall.
Most of these paintings evince an indirect influence of the Tanjore school of Painting, especially in the portrayal of the gods and goddesses. The beautiful Vishnu-Mohini is particularly reminiscent of the beautiful women of Tanjor paintings. Unneeded space is filled up with entwined flowery creeper or foliage motifs. In the paintings of the Siva-family, Dakshina-moorthi, as well as in Yogasana-Krishna there wre trees pictures as back-drops. The effect of spred-out branches covered with thick green foliage is remarkably achieved.

One can easily notice two separate styles of painting at Kottakkal. Richness of colours used and the bold and accurate lines of the paintings are the hallmarks of the two styles. If forced to evaluate the relative merits of the two styles the sure touch of a master-artist is obvious in the former, where the colours are fresh and sparkling. This is so because the pictures are extremely good from the point of view of lines as well. The pictures of Siva and Mohini, Garuda Shakti, Lord Varaha holding Goddess Earth are good examples to illustrate this.

The oldest paintings in the Vet-takkorumakan temple at Balusseri (Calicut) by Krishna Pisharady the master of Sankaran Nair closely resembles the style of the finest murals of Kottakkal. It is clear from the painted inscription of Balusseri that these were done in the same period
as those at Kottakkal.